BioQuakes

AP Biology class blog for discussing current research in Biology

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Aftermath Mysteries of COVID-19

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On December 5, 2023

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Greetings, health explorers! Today, we’re diving into the twists and turns of a new study that unveils what happens in the aftermath of COVID-19. To put this into context, let’s picture this: you have now gotten rid of COVID from your body after suffering for a few days, but the health challenges still linger. A fresh study with 140,000 US veterans reveals how risks, from diabetes to fatigue, can play the long game for at least 2 YEARS! Crazy right? 

The research revealed that patients initially hospitalized during their COVID-19 cases were more likely to experience these health problems. However, even those with milder initial infections were still at a higher risk for about one-third of the analyzed medical issues compared to those who didn’t test positive. The most common problems align with long COVID symptoms such as fatigue, memory problems, loss of smell, blood clots, metabolic issues, and gastrointestinal problems. The study found that for every 1,000 people infected with the coronavirus, a cumulative 150 years of healthy life is lost due to persistent symptoms, highlighting the significant impact of long COVID. 

The article notes limitations. Some of these limitations include relying on electronic health records and potential skewing due to the predominantly male and older veteran population analyzed. It also did not include individuals who may have been infected but did not receive a positive test result in the early stages of the pandemic when testing was limited.

Wow, the impact of COVID-19 on long-term health is truly eye-opening! What are your thoughts on how we, as a society, can better address and manage the challenges posed by Long COVID? Share your insights below!

To set the stage, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines Long COVID, also known as Post-COVID Conditions, as the persistence or development of new symptoms three months post-initial SARS-CoV-2 infection, lasting at least two months with no other explanation. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) expand on this, noting that Long COVID encompasses a large variety of health issues affecting various body systems, even emerging after mild cases or in those who never tested positive for COVID.

Delving into the ideas, Dr. Akiko Iwasaki of the Yale School of Medicine and director of the Yale Center of Infection & Immunity, underscores that Long COVID is NOT A singular disease. Her research puts forward 4 hypotheses, suggesting that persistent virus remnants, autoimmunity triggered by B and T cells, reactivation of dormant viruses, and chronic changes post-inflammatory response may all contribute. SARS-CoV-2 without background

In AP Biology, we learned about the immune system and B and T cells. The immune system plays a crucial role in identifying and eliminating pathogens, but in some cases, remnants of the virus may persist. This situation involves the adaptive immune response, where B and T cells are responsible for recognizing and responding to specific pathogens. Autoimmunity is triggered by B and T cells. The immune system is designed to recognize and target foreign invaders. Sometimes, it can mistakenly attack the body’s own health cells, leading to autoimmune disorders. B and T cells are crucial to the adaptive immune response. 

How have your studies or interests in biology influenced your understanding of topics like the immune system and the function of B and T cells? Share your insights! Fimmu-11-579250-g003

Some statistics addressed in the Yale Medicine article, address the question of Long COVID’s trajectory, the Household Pulse Survey in the U.S. shows a potential decline, with reported symptoms dropping from 19% in June 2022 to 11% in January 2023. The true prevalence remains elusive, with estimates suggesting 65 million affected globally, potentially underreported due to the rise in at-home testing since 2022. 

Now, let’s connect this to the study involving 140,000 US veterans. The article  showcases the persistent health risks associated with COVID-19, unveiling that even individuals with milder initial infections face a higher risk of enduring medical issues. Some problems at the top of this list include: fatigue, memory problems, loss of smell, blood clots, metabolic issues, and gastrointestinal problems.  

For every 1,000 people infected, the cumulative loss of healthy life due to persistent symptoms amounts to a staggering 150 years. While the study acknowledges limitations, like reliance on electronic health records and potential population skew, it underscores the importance of protecting ourselves from COVID-19, given its potential long-term health consequences, even from seemingly mild infections. 

Long COVID demands continued attention, research, and comprehensive strategies for prevention and management. As we reflect on these findings, it is evident that understanding and addressing Long COVID is crucial.

What are your thoughts on this?

Shifting gears, another article from The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)  delves into new guidance for healthcare providers treating patients with post-COVID conditions. The term “long COVID” is introduced, emphasizing that these conditions can affect individuals regardless of their initial symptoms. The CDC highlights a broad spectrum of symptoms, including heart palpitations, cognitive impairment, insomnia, and post-exertional malaise (PEM). While primary care providers can manage many cases, the CDC warns against relying solely on diagnostic results. People with post-COVID conditions are advised to continue preventive measures, and COVID-19 vaccines are highly recommended. The guidance is subject to updates as more information becomes available.

The FAIR Health study mentioned in the CDC article, indicates that over 23% of COVID-19 patients experience post-COVID conditions, with pain, breathing difficulties, hyperlipidemia, malaise, and fatigue being common. Half of hospitalized patients developed post-COVID conditions, and there’s a higher risk of mortality following severe treatment, more so for hospitalized individuals. The American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation admires the CDC’s guidance for improving healthcare responses for long COVID.

As I did my research surrounding a health challenge that stretches far beyond the initial impact of the pandemic, the significance hits close to home. It’s not just data; it’s the lived experiences of individuals moving through the long-lasting effects of COVID-19. This isn’t just a call to action; it’s a call for our collective attention, research efforts, and a compassionate response. This health issue isn’t confined to statistics; it touches the lives of millions worldwide, making it a cause that resonates deeply within us all.

Your Genetics May Have Saved You From Getting COVID-19

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On December 5, 2023

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Were you one of the, what felt like fairly few, people who never got COVID-19 when it seemed like everyone else did? Well, maybe you did and you were asymptomatic with COVID-19. I remember when my whole family was sick with this virus, except for me. I always thought it was just luck, and you might have as well, but what if certain gene mutations can prevent the symptoms of this virus.

In a study done by the National Institute of Health, researchers looked into the genetic variations and how they affected T cells in the immune system. The focus of the study was the human leukocyte antigen complex (HLA). The proteins of these genes prevented people from people feeling symptoms of COVID-19. The proteins of HLA helped the immune system react to the SARS-CoV-2 virus by recognizing the infected cells by presenting pieces of pathogens to the T cells.

HLA-B*2705-peptide in complex with influenza nucleoprotein NP383-391

At the University of California, San Francisco, researchers studied unvaccinated bone marrow donated from The National Marrow Donor Program/Be The Match. Out of 1,428 donors, 136 were asymptomatic for two weeks before and after testing positive COVID-19. The HLA variant, HLA-B*15:01, had a strong association with the asymptomatic donors. The team, along with researchers from La Trobe University in Australia, studied T-cell memory. They found that the T cells in people who had the HLA-B15 gene, and were never exposed to the COVID-19 virus, responded to the NQK-Q8 peptide in the virus and were able to have a faster immune response. Therefore, people who contain the HLA-B15 gene are prone to being asymptomatic to COVID.

In AP Biology we learned about the immune system’s response to viruses, like SARS-CoV-2. We learned that T-cells and Helper T Cells are part of cell-mediated immunity and are crucial for recognizing antigens and releasing cytokines to trigger immune responses. Then, B and T cells create antibodies and cytotoxic cells to kill off the virus. Memory B and T cells are also formed in order to generate a faster immune response if the body is exposed to the same virus again. Therefore, the immune response stimulated when a person contains the HLA-B15 gene is similar to one where the body uses memory cells to fight an infection.

So, have you never caught COVID-19, or are you one of the lucky people to contain the HLA-B15 gene?

 

New Injection Provides Hope for Regaining Smell Following COVID-19 Infection

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On December 5, 2023

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Did you or someone you know ever contract COVID-19 and lose your sense of taste or smell? This is called Parosmia. There are people on social media who have tried to theorize ways to regain the ability to smell normally. For example, burning an orange peel. However, if your nasal cavity is damaged, regardless of the strong orange aroma, it may be believed that you will not be able to regain your sense of smell.

So, how was your nose damaged in the first place? The olfactory system contains a zone that detects scents towards the top of the nasal cavity. When molecules diffuse up into the nose, they dock in receptor proteins which ultimately initiates a cascade to create a cellular response. Hence, we are able to smell aromatic molecules.

When someone is infected with the SARS-CoV2 virus, the olfactory epithelial cells are damaged. Doctors have analyzed singular cells following a biopsy in order to examine the effect of the virus on healthy cells.  They were able to conclude that the body ignited a innate immunity response, in which swelling occurred where the nerve endings are located. While in some cases the swelling decreased following the innate response, other times, the swelling remained and damaged the tissue.

Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2

This can be explained by what we have learned in AP Biology. During an innate immune response, cells release histamines. These dilate blood vessels, while macrophages secrete cytokines. Cytokines attract phagocytes that allow the infected cells and pathogens to be destroyed. The proteins that attempt to interfere with the viruses cause more histamine to be released and overall more swelling. Therefore, the nasal cavity can remain damaged.

However, new research has found that an injection just might help patients with long COVID symptoms to regain their sense of smell. According to Dr. Adam Zoga, one way that patients have begun to smell again is by injecting stellate ganglion blocks into the neck on either side of the voice box. This reaches the stellate ganglia which contains nerve bundles that control your body’s fight-or-flight responses, known as the sympathetic nervous system. Patients also received a steroid injection to decrease swelling.

The patients that participated in the study did not all benefit from it. However, 22 of the 37 that followed up with administrators following the trial injection noticed improvements in one week. Dr. Leigh Sowerby analyzed this data and theorizes that this may work to treat Parosmia because the sense of smell is affected when the sympathetic nervous system is overactive. He believes that this injection “resets” the nervous system, allowing the nerve bundles to return to normal and patients to regain their sense of smell. However, because only 37 of the original 54 patients followed up after the injections, and there was no control group, researchers cannot further extended this claim.

COVID-19 Vaccine Going Retro?

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On December 5, 2023

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Bottle with Coronavirus Vaccine and syringe with Novavax logo on white background
Have you ever wondered why the world started to use mRNA vaccines all of a sudden ever since the COVID-19 pandemic? Where did the traditional methods of vaccination go? This sudden shift in vaccine technology didn’t just happen by chance but was a result of years of scientific research and experiments. As the world faced an unprecedented pandemic, the traditional method of vaccination, while reliable, was slower and less effective to adapt to mutating virus than the mRNA vaccines, which is faster and more flexible when combating COVID-19 viruses. However, the traditional methods have returned! The new Novavax COVID-19 vaccine is an old-fashioned, protein-based approach to vaccination, a contrast to the mRNA technology used in Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. The Novavax vaccine especially targets the SARS-CoV-2 variant XBB.1.5, which is a descendent of Omicron. 

Novavax’s Differences: A Protein-Based Approach
Unlike the mRNA vaccines, which use modified viral genetic materials to cause an immune response, Novavax relies on a more traditional approach which injects proteins that resemble SARS-CoV-2 directly into the body. This method has over 30 years of application in vaccines such as the Hepatitis B Vaccine. The Novavax Company also uses insect cells, such as moth cells, to produce SARS-CoV-2’s unique spike proteins. The reason why Novavax researchers use moth cells is because of its efficiency in producing spike proteins. They first select the desired genes that create the spike proteins, and then they put these kinds of genes into a baculovirus, which is basically an insect virus. The baculovirus will then infect moth cells and replicate rapidly inside them creating lots of spike proteins. Finally, the researchers will extract and use the spike proteins for vaccines. Additionally, Novavax’s formula also includes Matrix-M, a compound from Chilean Soapbark Trees, which will further enhance our immune system’s response to the spike protein.

Targeted Variants and Efficiency:                                                                    Novavax vaccines are developed specifically for the XBB.1.5 variant, and they are not optimized for the newer Eris and Pirola variants. However, vaccinologist Gregory Poland notes that all vaccinations, including Pfizer and Moderna, have all been “chasing the tail” of the emerging variants all over the pandemic, so Novavax is not alone in this situation. Additionally, all of the vaccine boosters seem to be able to provide some protection against new variants, but protein vaccinations are way slower to adapt to the new variants than mRNA vaccines. In terms of efficiency, according to infectious disease researcher Kirsten Lyke, Novavax stands on par with other mRNA vaccines. It is 55% effective in preventing COVID-19 symptoms and 31% effective at preventing infections, and this is very similar to the mRNA vaccines.

Protein Synthesis Elongation.png (mRNA coding protein)

Side Effects and Availability:
When it comes to side effects, the Novavax booster demonstrates a lower risk of myocarditis(inflammation of heart muscle) or pericarditis(inflammation of the outer lining of the heart) compared to mRNA vaccines, but of course, it is not entirely risk-free. It also tends to have fewer side effects like muscle fatigue and nausea post-vaccination. A huge advantage of the Novavax vaccine is its availability, it can be stored in a typical refrigerator, making it considerably more accessible than mRNA vaccines, which require subfreezing storage. The Novavax booster is now available in pharmacies across the country, with the CDC recommending having two doses that are eight weeks apart for unvaccinated people.

Which one should I get?
Both the protein vaccines and the mRNA vaccines can help you fight against the SARS-CoV-2 virus, and neither is better than the other. The mRNA vaccine has a faster efficiency in preventing COVID and has a higher adaptability to new variants, while the Novavax vaccine uses a more familiar technology, has a more accessible storage requirement, and has a lower risk of side effects post-vaccination. But no matter which kind of vaccine you think is better, Lyke suggests that the most important thing is to “pick one and get it.”

Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Connecting to AP Biology:
In AP Biology, we’ve learned about how our bodies fight bacterial and viral infections and specifically talked about how the spike proteins on SARS-CoV-2 work to attack our bodies. When our body first recognizes the SARS-CoV-2 virus, white blood cells like Macrophages and Dendritic cells will engulf the virus, breaking it down into small pieces and displaying it to Helper T cells on their MHC proteins. The Helper T cells will then release Cytokines which will trigger both the Cell-mediated response and the Humoral response of your immune system. These responses will ultimately kill most of the bacteria/viruses in your body. Additionally, your immune system will then remember the SARS-CoV-2 virus, and if you ever get affected again, your immune system will immediately respond to it. Understanding how vaccines help your body defend against real viruses links directly to our studies on the human body’s defense mechanisms against foreign pathogens.

Leave a Comment!
COVID-19 is a years-long pandemic that still hasn’t ended today, I think it is really important for everyone to know how they can protect themselves through modern technologies and minimize the impact of the virus. I am also intrigued by how fast different vaccine technologies have evolved to help mankind to combat the virus. How do you feel about the re-introduction of protein-based vaccines like Novavax? Do you think this will change the public’s preferences on COVID-19 vaccines? Feel free to leave a comment below and we can discuss more about this topic! For more information on this post, go to ScientificAmerican.com for the latest research and updates.

COVID Always Spikes in the Winter!

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On December 5, 2023

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Have you ever wondered why you always catch a virus when it’s cold outside? Perhaps why we have seen spikes in the disease, COVID-19 (caused by the virus SARS-Co-V-2) during the winter months compared to summer? Recent studies have been conducted on why viruses thrive in cold weather. Additionally, researchers have come up with ways to protect yourself during the cold season!

Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (50047466123)

How We Catch Viruses

Viruses are caught by breathing in small droplets known as aerosols. As learned in AP Biology, when a virus is first detected, the innate immune system activates. The innate immune system is nonspecific and will attack anything. It consists of barrier defenses such as mucus and saliva to trap pathogens. Then, if a pathogen gets past these barriers, innate internal cellular defense is activated. The mast cells release histamine and macrophages secrete cytokines. Histamine dilated blood vessels to increase capillary permeability, causing the area to swell. The cytokines attract smaller phagocytes called neutrophils that digest pathogens and dead cell debris. The innate immunity response might induce a fever, for higher body temperatures enhance phagocytosis. However, if the virus (ex: SARS-Co-V-2) makes it past this, it will begin to infect the cells. The virus will latch onto the ACE2 receptors of a cell, allowing the viral genetic material to fuse with healthy human cells. The human host cells will then begin to replicate SARS-Co-V-2RNA to create the proteins that make up SARS-Co-V-2.

Schematic-representation-of-an-immune-response-to-a-bacterial-infection

How Weather and Seasons Impact Viruses

To start, your location matters in regards to catching COVID. Researchers have found that being outside significantly decreases your odds of catching COVID from the SARS-Co-V-2 virus. The outdoors are well-ventilated. Viruses exhaled outside are diluted faster in the vast and clean outdoor air. This is relevant because we tend to be outside more in the summer than the winter. Inside (during cooler months), viruses can build up in the poorly ventilated space: such as schools and office buildings. 

Additionally, humidity plays a large role in the spread of SARS-Co-V-2 and other viruses. The droplets that the virus is in, such as saliva, dry slowly when it is humid. This could kill viruses like SARS-CoV-2 and influenza. However, the dry air of the winter is known to disarm people’s immune systems. Studies have found that dry air can trigger death of the cells lining the airways. These are the cells of the innate immune system. 

Evidence also suggests that the cold itself is a culprit for the spread of SARS-Co-V-2 and other viruses. When a virus is detected, sensor proteins signal the cell to produce bubble like structures called extracellular vesicles. These vesicles act as a sort of diversion for the virus. The virus will attempt to dock to the vesicle rather than the cell. The vesicle’s microRNA will then release in an attempt to kill the virus. Research states that compared to the standard 37° Celsius, cells in 32° Celsius released 42% less vesicles. They also packed 24% less microRNA than the vesicles in warmer temperatures. 

Face Mask used in Coronavirus pandemic COVID-19

How Can I Keep Healthy This Winter? 

While a humidifier may help, it can produce mold and rot. So, professionals are now leaning towards using exhaust fans, or even better, a HEPA filter to filter viruses in the air. Post Pandemic, we know a lot about mask wearing.. Did you notice that you did not contract as many illnesses while wearing a mask?  Well, masks act as shields to protect you from the aerosols an infected person may produce. Additionally, masks keep the nasal area warm and moist, boosting the immune system.

Novavax: A Revolutionary Change to Covid Vaccines

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On December 5, 2023

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Medical company Novavax introduced a new FDA-authorized COVID booster shot in early October, expanding the options of available COVID vaccines. This booster specifically targets the XBB.1.5 SARS-CoV-2 variant, a descendant of Omicron, distinguishing itself as the first protein vaccine in over a year. Unlike other mRNA vaccines, such as those developed by Pfizer and Moderna, Novavax employs a more traditional method, directly injecting proteins resembling those in SARS-CoV-2 into the body. The Novavax vaccine includes Matrix-M, a proprietary compound extracted from Chilean soapbark trees, enhancing the immune system. Matrix-M has also been integrated into other vaccines, including one endorsed by the World Health Organization for malaria.

Similar to the updated shots from Moderna and Pfizer, the Novavax vaccine is not optimized for newer virus versions like Eris and Pirola, as it is specifically designed to target the XBB.1.5 variant. Unlike mRNA vaccines, the Novavax vaccine is more convenient for distribution and storage, as it can be kept at normal refrigeration temperatures. However, the development of new formulas for emerging variants in protein vaccines takes longer compared to the adaptable mRNA vaccines.

210308-Z-A3538-008

Novavax demonstrates effectiveness similar to other COVID vaccines, with its booster being approximately 55% effective at preventing symptoms and 31% effective at preventing infection. Studies indicate that mixing and matching different vaccine types yield comparable antibody responses, with some studies favoring the use of both boosters, taking the mRNA after protein vaccines. The longevity of antibodies from the Novavax booster, which lasts longer than those from mRNA vaccines according to research, remains inconclusive due to confounding variables of preexisting immunity.

In terms of safety, the Novavax booster poses a lower risk of causing myocarditis or pericarditis compared to mRNA vaccines and shows fewer side effects in the initial 48 hours after vaccination. The booster is currently available in pharmacies, distributed to numerous locations, and is recommended as a single dose.

In AP Biology, we learned how mRNA vaccines for COVID work, as the vaccine introduces antigen-encoding mRNA into immune cells. These cells utilize the mRNA as a guide to produce foreign proteins resembling those created by the COVID virus. These protein molecules then trigger an adaptive immune response, instructing the body to recognize and eliminate the actual COVID virus.

Is the Novavax booster the real deal? mRNA vaccines, such as Moderna and Pfizer, have been proven effective and have worked extremely well in the past. Their contributors, Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman, were recently awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Novavax has just been approved with not much prior history in its effectiveness or side effects open to the public. Personally, I believe that the mRNA vaccines are way safer options regarding their previous successes, however, the benefits and pros of the Novavax listed by scientists and researchers might as well outweigh its uncertainty. If you have the choice of taking the new Novavax booster or the mRNA boosters, which one would you choose considering their pros and cons?

The cause of Asymptomatic COVID-19 cases: A Gene Mutation

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On December 4, 2023

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Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (50047466123)

What is the cause of asymptomatic COVID-19 cases?

The study led by researchers at University of California San Francisco, published in Nature on July 19, 2023, provides the first evidence of a genetic basis for asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection.  Individuals who contract COVID-19 but remain symptom-free are more than twice as likely to carry a specific gene variation. The genetic mutation, HLA-B15:01, common in about 10% of the study’s population, doesn’t prevent virus infection but remarkably prevents the development of symptoms. The research identifies the HLA-B15:01 variant as a key factor in solving the mystery of asymptomatic COVID-19 cases, with 20% of asymptomatic individuals carrying it compared to 9% with symptoms. The study, focusing on unvaccinated donors, finds that risk factors for severe COVID-19 don’t play a role in asymptomatic cases. The HLA-B*15:01 gene’s ability to recognize and respond to COVID-19, facilitated by T-cell memory, suggests potential targets for drug and vaccine development. The collaboration with La Trobe University delves into the concept of T-cell memory, highlighting the immune system’s ability to recognize SARS-CoV-2 due to exposure to similar peptides in seasonal coronaviruses. The research opens avenues for promoting immune protection against SARS-CoV-2 in future vaccine or drug development.

Recently in AP Biology, my class learned about the intricate mechanisms of the immune system.  This research directly connects to our learning of the immune system, more specifically memory cells which are highlighted in the article as a key piece of how the HLA-B15:01 gene functions.  T memory cells are cells which are responsible for recognizing and responding to all previous infections.  As previously mentioned, La Trobe University found that the HLA-B15:01 gene recognizes COVID-19 because of its similarity and to the more common coronaviruses people are regularly exposed to.  Once recognized the immune system has the capability to attack it with T-killer cells and potentially create and secrete antibodies through macrophages and plasma cells.

Since March 2020 I have been curious to the reasoning behind asymptomatic cases and I am happy to find a potential answer to this long unanswered question.  Why do you think this research has taken almost three years to find the answer to.  Comparatively, the COVID-19 vaccine was made in around 8 months from March of 2020. Of course there was significantly more incentive and money invested into the development of the vaccine, however the two findings are years apart and the vaccine is seemingly much harder to research and develop.

Unlocking the Mysteries of the Brain: Bridging Neuroscience and AP Biology

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On November 8, 2023

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In recent years, neuroscience has unveiled exciting breakthroughs in our understanding of the human brain, revealing its intricate nature. Thanks to the National Institutes of Health’s BRAIN Initiative and the work of the BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Network, we are now diving deeper into the cellular makeup of the brain. This research aligns with our AP Biology lessons on cell structure. It highlights the highly organized nature of nerve cells, reinforcing the concept that cells are the fundamental building blocks of life.

Neuron Cell Body

One remarkable achievement of this research is the creation of detailed cell maps of human and nonhuman primate brains. This development aligns with our AP Biology class, where we have learned about the fundamental concept of cell structure. Cells are, indeed, the building blocks of life, and this research demonstrates how, even in the complex nervous system, all cells exhibit a specific and organized arrangement.

This exploration also highlights the intriguing similarities in the cellular and molecular properties of human and nonhuman primate brains. These shared features reflect our evolutionary history and the conserved nature of brain structure across different species. The research suggests that slight changes in gene expression during human evolution have led to adaptations in neuronal wiring and synaptic function, contributing to our remarkable ability to adapt, learn, and change.

In our recent studies on neurons, we have learned about the fascinating world of these specialized cells. Our understanding of neuron structure and function provides a foundation for comprehending the significance of the research conducted under the BRAIN Initiative. This supports that the brain’s structure is not fixed but adapts to meet the challenges it faces.
The primary goal of the BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Network is to create a comprehensive record of brain cells. This understanding aids in comprehension of the development and progression of brain disorders. By learning the cellular composition of the brain, we can address the challenges that arise when things go wrong, promising a brighter future in the field of brain science.

As we reflect on these intriguing connections between neuroscience and our AP Biology knowledge, it is evident that our class has equipped us with a fundamental understanding of cell structure. This knowledge has proven invaluable in making sense of groundbreaking neuroscience research. I find this as a very intriguing and exciting journey, and scientists are actively committed to understanding the brain’s remarkable adaptability, the key to its functioning and evolution. As we explore the fascinating connections between neuroscience and our AP Biology knowledge, how could this deeper understanding of the brain’s adaptability and structure impact the future of healthcare and treatments for neurological conditions? Feel free to share your views and insights!

Unlocking Nature’s Secret: Crafting Cellulose Gels by Mimicking Avian Saliva

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On November 7, 2023

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Researchers at North Carolina State University have harnessed inspiration from the ingenious tactics of small birds’ nest-building processes to develop an eco-friendly and cost-effective method for developing cellulose gels. This freeze-thaw technique is not only straightforward but also holds promise for creating cellulose gels that find application in diverse fields, including the development of timed drug delivery systems. What’s more, this process is suitable to bamboo and other plant fibers containing lignin. Cellulose stands out as a versatile material in the production of hydrogels, indispensable in various applications, from contact lenses to wound care and drug delivery. However, the usual methods for creating hydrogels from cellulose often involve the use of toxic processes. Usually, making cellulose-based hydrogels requires dissolving cellulose and then forming the desired structure. This often involves using difficult, unstable, or unsafe chemicals. As Lucian Lucia, a professor at NC State, points out, “Normally, you have to first dissolve the cellulose and then induce it to crosslink or form the structure of interest, which often requires the use of difficult to handle, unstable, or toxic solvents.”

Little swift, Apus affinis, at Kruger National Park, South Africa, crop

In a stroke of biomimicry, the researchers drew inspiration from the Swift family of birds, known for employing their saliva as a natural adhesive to bind twigs together during nest construction. The saliva encourages the fibers in the nest to interconnect, a phenomenon they sought to replicate with dissolved cellulose for crafting hydrogels. The process involved using water-soluble cellulose, specifically carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), into an acid solution, which was then dissolved. Powdered cellulose fiber was introduced to the solution, which was then subjected to four rounds of freezing and thawing, resulting in the creation of a cellulose gel. Lucia likened this process to adding a thickening agent to water, akin to thickening a pie filling. By adjusting the CMC’s pH, the water becomes thicker, making it act like glue. The successive freezing and thawing cycles cause the cellulose to compact and interweave, similar to the natural nest-building process of Swifts, but without the need for beaks and saliva. Freeze-drying the gels further led to the production of cellulose foam. The researchers successfully replicated this process using bamboo fibers, suggesting its potential applicability to a wide range of lignin and cellulose-containing fibers. These cellulose gels exhibit resilience and stability at room temperature and can be altered to degrade as needed, making them well-suited for a range of applications, including drug delivery. This approach offers an environmentally friendly means of processing otherwise insoluble cellulosic materials, harnessing the principles of biomimicry. This research has been documented in the journal Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials, with Noureddine Abidi from Texas Tech University serving as a co-corresponding author. This article on developing eco-friendly cellulose gels using biomimicry in the nest-building process of Swift birds connects to the topics learned in AP Biology. In AP Biology, macromolecules are an essential topic that is studied, and cellulose, the substance examined in the article, is a complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide) that is one of the primary structural components of plant cell walls. It is composed of long chains of glucose molecules that link together to create a tough and rigid structure. This rigid structural integrity of plant cell walls or cellulose is what scientists sought to use to create an adaptable and compatible gel for scientific/medicinal use. After discovering the intriguing properties of cellulose based gels and there potential variety of uses in the medical field, Im left wondering about the potential evolution of cellulose utilization. Did you learn anything new about cellulose and its amazing properties?

 

Meet The Horrific Parasitic Wasp That Devours Its Victims From Inside Out!

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On November 6, 2023

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Capitojoppa amazonica female

Scientists at Utah State University have recently discovered a new genus of parasitic wasps that employ a multitude of strategies involving impaling its victims, sucking on their blood, before finally eating them from inside out, all while laying its eggs inside of them.

I have always be fascinated with creepy insects and their distinctive characteristics and behaviors, but this newfound genus with such bizarre behavior might top my list as the scariest!

The name of this parasitic wasp, Capitojoppa amazonica, is a combination of ‘capito,’ alluding to its notably bulbous head, and ‘joppa,’ referencing to a similar genus of wasps.d

Brandon Claridge, a lead researcher of the project, stumbled upon this horrifying insect during their expedition in the National Reserve of Allpahuayo-Mishana in Peru, where they employed malaise traps to ensnare as many flying insects as possible. These traps eventually lead to the capture of a bright yellow wasp with a almond-shaped head and distinctive tube-like appendages. Upon closer examination, the scientist identified that the captured species was an adult female known as a ‘solitary endoparasitoid:’ a parasite that lays a single egg inside its host (caterpillars, beetles, spiders). After the egg hatches, the wasp larvae will start to eating the host from inside out.

‘Once the host is located and mounted, the female will frantically stroke it with her antennae,’ Claridge said to Live Science via email. He added, “If acceptable, the female will deposit a single egg inside the host by piercing it with her ovipositor (a tube-like, egg-laying organ).” The wasp’s oviposition also involves intricate cellular processes, which can potentially trigger the release of enzymes or chemicals to facilitate egg deposition.

Beyond depositing eggs within its host and consuming their internal organs, Capitojoppa amazonica can also exhibit some other eerie and fascinating behaviors. For instance, after stabbing their hosts, these wasps will proceed to extract hemolymph, a blood-like fluid found within insects, from the oozing wound.

Hemolymph can also carry hormones – insulin, growth hormones – to target cells or tissues. As learned in AP Biology, hormones are signaling molecules that regulate various physiological processes, and hemolymph can facilitate that process by transporting hormones to interact with specific receptor proteins on the surface or inside target cells. Then, once the hormone binds to its receptor, it triggers a cascade of cellular responses such as gene expression, activation of enzymes etc… to carry out vital functions within the cell, ensuring the well-being of the wasps.

According to Claridge, “females will even stab the host with the ovipositor and feed without laying an egg as it helps with gaining nutrients for egg maturation.”

This lethal parasitic wasp was only one out of the 109 newly identified species that the team has uncovered.

But what do you think? Feel free to leave a comment below about this incredible species.

 

 

 

Is the Gel Manicure worth the Damage to Your DNA?

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On November 5, 2023

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Nail salons are filled with these UV lamps that create the perfect gel manicure which lasts for weeks and dries instantly. These manicures are advertised all around and consumers are sucked in, including myself. I love getting an easy gel manicure and saving myself the hassle of having chipped nails that require at least 20 minutes to dry. However, by placing our hands into these lamps, we are causing ourselves years of permanent damage to our DNA. But how does exposure to UV rays cause these intense issues? It all boils down to one thing; the DNA in our skin cells.

The two main types of skin cancer are melanoma and non-melanoma. Melanoma is less common but more dangerous than non-melanoma. While skin cancer can be hereditary, there is evidence that exposure to UV rays causes skin cancer. PubMed Central explains DNA damage caused by UV rays results in deamination, depurination, and depyrimidination. Deamination is the loss of an amino group from a compound that can convert one base to another, meaning the deamination of cytosine from UV rays would result in the production of uracil. Depurination and depyrimidination are the total removal of purine and pyrimidine bases. This removes the deoxyribose sugars in the cell which causes breakage in the DNA backbone. Exposure to these oxidative stressors can cause double DNA strand breaks which are the most dangerous as they leads to the loss of genetic material. These interferences damage the components of DNA molecules and the normal functions of the cells. The damage that UV rays cause to the DNA in skin cells lead to abnormal growth and the start of benign or malignant growths in the skin, which can ultimately lead to cancer. 

Direct and indirect DNA damage by ionizing radiation

A study done by the University of California used UV lamps that are used to cure gel manicures to study their affects on skin cells. They used three different cells types; adult human skin keratinocytes, human foreskin fibroblasts, and mouse embryonic fibroblasts. They observed that that exposure to the UV lamps for 20 minutes caused between 20-30 percent cell death, and three consecutive 20 minute exposures led to 65-70 percent cell death. Additionally, the exposure caused mitochondrial and DNA damage to the surviving cells. The mutations found in these cells are representative of those found in human skin cancer, proving that the consistent use of these lamps can lead to skin cancer. In another study, Maria Zhivagui, a postdoctoral scholar, exposed three cell types to acute and chronic exposure of UV lights. In both conditions, cell death, damage, and DNA mutations were observed. There was also an elevation of reactive oxygen species molecules which are known to cause DNA damage and mutations that are found in melanoma patients.

UV manicure lamps (15157277325)

Therefore, the study proves how damaging UV rays are to our cells. The risk of using these lamps is not worth the risks they bring to your DNA. Alternatives to UV lamps are just getting normal manicures, press on nails, or powder manicures, which do not require the exposure to UV rays.

This connects to what we have been learning in AP Biology because DNA’s structure is composed of nucleotide molecules. These nucleotides contain a phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, and one the four nitrogenous bases; adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. UV damage can lead to chemical changes in these nitrogenous bases and to the structure of the DNA. Additionally, this can cause disruptions in the reading of genetic code during protein synthesis which results in incorrect sequence of amino acids. We have learned that altering amino acid structure completely changes the function of the proteins, which is why UV rays lead to mutations such as skin cancer.

So, next time you decide to get a gel manicure will you think about the damage you are causing to your DNA? Is the risk worth it?

 

Sour Science!

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On November 5, 2023

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Have you ever enjoyed an orange and wondered what causes its amazing citrus flavor? Well, scientists have recently discovered the origins of citrus’s sour taste. 

Scientists have recently discovered the origins of citrus fruits like oranges and lemons. In their study, they discovered a specific gene, PH4, that influences the fruits’ taste by regulating the fruits’ citric acid levels. Additionally, the researchers traced the fruits’ evolutionary journey from the Indian subcontinent to south-central China over millions of years and discussed influences that environments may have had on the citrus.

There are many reasons why these fruits evolved the way they did. One reason discussed in the article is human interference through selective breeding. Thousands of years ago, humans selectively bred certain types of citrus for food and medicinal purposes. Another reason they might have evolved to have more citric acid is to prevent bacterial infections. Bacteria, generally, prefer neutral environments with a pH of about 7. o.  Citric acid has a pH of about 3.2. Therefore, the more citric acid a fruit has the less likely bacteria can infect the fruit.

This relates to AP Bio through the involvement of genes in protein synthesis. During protein synthesis in a cell, the first thing that happens is transcription where information on the DNA is transcribed onto mRNA. The mRNA then is sent to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum where it is received on the cis face. There, on the ribosomes of the rough ER, the protein is synthesized. The type of protein that is synthesized here is determined by the information of the mRNA. Then the protein is sent to the Golgi where, based on the information from the mRNA, molecules are added to determine the final location of the protein. Genes, including PH4, are sections of DNA. Therefore, the PH4 gene, in part, determines what type of proteins are produced by the cell and where they go.

Wow! It is fascinating how a gene can influence an orange’s taste. I found this research so interesting because I love oranges. I wonder how other plants’ genes influence their taste?

3D Printed Cerebral Cortex

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On November 5, 2023

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A 3D PRINTED BRAIN? Have you ever wondered what methods or technologies could be used for repairing brain injuries? University of Oxford researchers have achieved a groundbreaking feat by utilizing 3D printing of human stem cells to create engineered tissue resembling a simplified cerebral cortex. This innovative approach, detailed in a publication in Nature Communications, demonstrates the potential for tailored repairs in cases of brain injuries when the printed tissue is implanted into mouse brain slices and integrates seamlessly with the host tissue. Trauma, stroke, and brain tumor surgeries often result in significant damage to the cerebral cortex, impacting cognition, movement, and communication for millions globally. 

Utilizing human induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (hiPSCs), the study employed an advanced 3D printing technique to construct a two-layered brain tissue, offering the advantage of deriving cells from the patient and minimizing the risk of immune response. This topic relates to Unit 1: Molecules & Cells. The endomembrane system includes various organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus, which are responsible for processing and modifying proteins. When hiPSCs differentiate into various cell types for tissue repair, it involves the activation of specific genes and the production of proteins. These newly differentiated cells will utilize the components of the endomembrane system to synthesize, modify, and transport proteins to their appropriate locations within the cell. This process showcases the importance of the endomembrane system in maintaining cellular function and specialization, a crucial topic in AP Biology.

3-D Bioprinting.jpg

Upon implantation, the printed tissues not only demonstrated structural integration with the host tissue but also exhibited functional integration. Led by Dr. Yongcheng Jin, the research team aims to enhance the technique for creating intricate, multi-layered cerebral cortex tissues closely resembling the human brain’s architecture. This breakthrough, representing a decade-long effort in advancing 3D bioprinting technologies at the University of Oxford, involved collaborative efforts between the Department of Chemistry and the Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics. The senior authors emphasize the potential for personalized implantation treatments and the broader impact on brain repair and research, signaling a significant leap forward in the field. 

In 7th grade, I experienced my first concussion, and unfortunately, the following year in 8th grade, I experienced another one. Despite being classified as mild, the impact on my well-being was significant. Following medical advice diligently, I adhered to the protocol to allow for proper healing. Doctors emphasized the seriousness of brain injuries, cautioning that they should not be taken lightly. Despite my commitment to the recovery process, I continue to struggle with severe migraines lasting nearly two weeks. The persistence of these symptoms prompted me to deep dive into research on the complexities of the brain. Acknowledging the intricate nature of the brain and unsure if my concussions directly correlate with the migraines, I embarked on a personal exploration of this topic, seeking to understand the intricate workings of this vital organ and perhaps find insights that could contribute to my own well-being. What are your thoughts on the potential of 3D printing human stem cells for repairing brain injuries? Do you believe this innovative approach could revolutionize treatments for trauma, stroke, and brain tumor surgeries? Share your opinions related to brain injuries and the advancements in 3D bioprinting.

Revealing the Potential of PF4: A Promising Molecule for Rejuvenating Aging Brains

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On November 5, 2023

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As the global population ages, the quest to preserve cognitive function in older individuals becomes increasingly significant. New research has shed light on a promising candidate in the fight against age-related cognitive decline: platelet factor four (PF4). Studies of three separate techniques have shown that PF4 may play a pivotal role in rejuvenating aging brains, opening the door to potential breakthroughs in the treatment of cognitive decline. 

PBB Protein PF4 image

PF4 Protein

Published on August 16, three research groups reported their findings in Nature Aging, Nature, and Nature Communications. These groups independently investigated techniques to combat cognitive decline in aging individuals, and remarkably, they all found a common factor: increased levels of PF4. This protein, known as platelet factor four, was found to be associated with improved cognitive performance and enhanced biological markers of brain health.

One research group, led by neuroscientist Dena Dubal from the University of California, San Francisco, had initially been studying the hormone klotho, which is linked to longevity. Their earlier studies revealed that injecting Klotho into mice improved cognition. However, because klotho molecules are too large to pass through the blood-brain barrier, the researchers concluded that the hormone must act on the brain indirectly, possibly through a messenger.

In their pursuit to identify this intermediary, Dubal’s team injected mice with klotho and measured changes in protein levels in the animals’ blood. Surprisingly, they discovered that platelet factors, especially PF4, increased significantly.

Another team at the University of California, San Francisco, led by neuroscientist Saul Villeda, had previously demonstrated that blood plasma from young mice could rejuvenate the brains of elderly mice. They found that young plasma contained significantly higher levels of PF4 compared to older plasma. These findings led to a collaboration between these two research teams.

Tara Walker, a neuroscientist at the University of Queensland, Australia, also joined the collaboration, as her team had discovered that exercise boosts PF4 levels and delivering PF4 directly to the brains of mice stimulated the growth of new nerve cells, a process known as neurogenesis, particularly in the hippocampus, a brain region essential for memory.

But what does all this mean?

The results of these studies collectively suggest that PF4, when administered alone, can improve cognition in mice. Additionally, it enhances neurogenesis and neural connections in the hippocampus, potentially explaining the cognitive benefits observed.

Villeda’s team also found a link between PF4 and the immune system. Injecting PF4 into older mice restored their immune systems to a more youthful state, decreasing inflammatory proteins and reducing inflammation in their brains.

While the discovery of PF4’s potential is undoubtedly exciting, there are important caveats to consider. Most notably, translating findings from mice into effective and safe therapies for humans is a considerable challenge. Nevertheless, the observation that PF4 levels decline with age in both mice and humans suggests it may have relevance in the quest to alleviate age-related cognitive decline.

Furthermore, these recent studies represent significant progress, shedding light on one piece of a complex puzzle. Other molecules, like GDF11, have been linked to restorative effects, and researchers are striving to understand their roles better. Lida Katsimpardi, a neuroscientist at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, highlights the need to decipher how each factor fits into the broader picture of cognitive rejuvenation.

The researchers aim to begin human trials within the next few years, but vigilance for potential side effects will be a priority. Additionally, research is essential to precisely understand the mechanisms through which PF4 operates in the body and brain, as well as its potential integration into a broader therapeutic approach.

In  AP Bio class, we’ve began to brush the surface of the topic of neurons. it’s important to grasp that neurons are the fundamental building blocks of the brain’s complex communication network. These brain cells, often referred to as nerve cells, work by transmitting electrical and chemical signals to relay information. According to our AP Bio notes, “the neuron transmits message impulses which communicate information from the environment, process information, and signal parts of the body to respond to the information -all by the flow of chemicals in and out of the plasma membrane”.  As we age, this intricate network can deteriorate, leading to cognitive decline. PF4 facilitates better communication between neurons. This protein’s potential to boost cognitive performance and stimulate the growth of new nerve cells could be the key to maintaining mental vitality as we grow older. While this is still in the early stages of research, the prospect of PF4 as a crucial piece of the cognitive health puzzle is a promising development in our understanding of the brain’s inner workings and its resilience over time. What do you think about the possibilities of PF4? 

 

Missing Ribosomal DNA in Fruit Flies

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On November 5, 2023

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This research was conducted by Yukiko Yamashita and her team on fruit fly germline stem cells and highlights the cells’ ability to retain their ribosomal DNA and continue to reproduce endlessly, giving immortality to these cells. 

Ribosomal DNA contains genes for ribosomes, which create the cell’s protein. In this case, it has a flaw because some of these genes will form a loop and pop out of the genome during cell division. If too much rDNA is lost in each generation, it would hinder their ability to build proteins, leading to extinction. However, the research showed that this is not happening, and germline stem cells are able to maintain their rDNA.

The research team used microscopy techniques to visualize rDNA in fruit fly testes and observed that their stem cells have a built-in mechanism to retain these essential genes. This mechanism involves a skewed swap of genomic sequences between two identical chromosomes, leading to one chromosome having extra rDNA, which is then passed to daughter stem cells. Fruit Flies that lack ribosomal DNA have different appearances such as unusual abdomen patterns.

The implications of this research go beyond fruit flies. Understanding how rDNA repeats are maintained in various species, including humans, is crucial, and the process is expected to be conserved across different organisms, even if the specific molecules involved are not. This research provides valuable insights into the mechanisms of immortality in germline stem cells and has the potential to inform our understanding of similar processes in other species. 

Drosophila melanogaster Female

In AP Bio we learned about the production of proteins and their transport system. The endomembrane system consists of the nucleus, the nuclear membrane, ribosomes, the rough ER, vesicles, the Golgi body, and the cell membrane. The proteins are made by ribosomes, some of which rest on the rough ER and others that float in the cytoplasm. Then they are transported by vesicles to the Golgi body, where they are packaged with a lipid label, and transported to the cell membrane, through which they exit the cell. In the case of fruit fly testes, essential genes are preserved becasue along the protein’s formation and transportation, some of its proteins exit the genome allowing the cell to preserve them. 

I chose this topic because the endomembrane system was my favorite thing to learn about, and I find genetic mutations interesting.

Where does the lost RNA go and what are the implications of it being in the cytoplasm?

 

How Do Cells Cope With Stress?

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On October 31, 2023

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Yeast Cell

As humans, our surroundings can make us naturally prone to stress. Whether it’s an overwhelming situation or a big responsibility, there are a plethora of reason that humans become stressed. But have you ever thought about how our own bodies and cells undergo their own kinds of stress? The environment that we are exposed to has an impact on the way that our cells operate, and recent research has provided information about how they can cope with it.

A source from the University of Chicago recently released this article that dives into the facts about the heat-shock of cells and how their adaptation of stress is one of the fundamental processes of life. In fact, this doesn’t only apply t0 our own cells, it also exists in single-celled organisms. The article cites the example of a yeast cell sitting on a bowl of fruit in the kitchen, but as the sunlight begins to warm up the kitchen, the environment becomes less pleasant for the yeast cell. For years, researchers have concentrated on how various genes react to heat stress as a way to understand this survival strategy. Now, because of the innovative application of sophisticated imaging techniques, scientists are obtaining an unprecedented view of the inner workings of cells to see how they react to heat-stress. Cells use a protective mechanism for their orphan ribosomal proteins by preserving them in liquid-like condensates. These proteins are essential for growth but are particularly susceptible to clustering when regular cell processing stops. The condensates are dispersed by molecular chaperon proteins when the heat-shock has passed. This enables the integration of the orphaned proteins into functional mature ribosomes that can start churning out proteins. The cell can resume its work without losing energy thanks to the rapid restart of ribosome manufacturing. This source from The Journal of Applied Physiology studies the importance of thermotolerance and acclimatization and how they allow an organism to survive what would normally be a lethal heat stress. Thermotolerance is defined as an organism’s ability to survive in high temperatures. Acclimatization is an organism’s ability to complete more work in the heat because of improvements in heat dissipation which is brought on by frequent, small increases in core temperature. These two factors of heat adaptation help us to understand the impact of cellular stress on an organism’s adaptation to its environment. In addition, this PubMed mentions how the effects of mild heat stress are just as important as those of severe heat stress. The cellular response to fever-ranged mild heat stress is very substantial from a physiological standpoint. When an organism’s temperature is displaying a fever, the body temperature only increases about 1-2 degrees Celsius. This is helpful information because it can help researchers determine how our cells are affected by illness when our body temperature rises to a fever.

There is plenty to discover about the inner workings of our cells. Our capabilities improve every day, but one thing stays the same: our cells will continue to adapt to heat stress in order to regulate the temperatures of our environment that surrounds us. As we have studied the contents of the cell in AP Bio, we have learned about the roles that the organelles play in the function of the cell. The specific organelles that are involved in cellular stress response are Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, lysosomes, and mitochondria. Their role in this process is to connect changes in metabolite levels to cellular reactions. The lipid membranes of organelles sense the changes in specific metabolites and activate the appropriate signaling and effector molecules. Our studies about cells and membranes have taught us about the roles of these organelles, but this research solidifies what we know about cells and can be helpful to understand how metabolism works in our cells.  That is part of what moved me to research this topic. I had never learned anything about cellular stress and how it is regulated, so it was an interesting opportunity to get to learn about it. This research about cell adaptation only adds to the understanding that we have gained from learning about the cell and how it has evolved from its origins. I’m curious to hear your thoughts on the this. How do you think that these recent findings will be helpful for future discoveries in medicine?

 

 

The Octopus’ Unique Way of Coping with the Cold

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On October 31, 2023

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The ocean is home to many different species in the world. Oftentimes, this home can be very cold place. Species across the ocean all have different ways of adapting to this cold : Mammals like seals stay warm by enveloping themselves in a layer of thick fur and blubber, for example. However, Cephalopods, such as Squids and Octopuses, don’t have the luxury of any thick fur or blubber. So how can they adapt to living in the cold ocean?

Recent research has shown that some Octopuses and Squid adapt to the cold temperatures by altering their bodies on the molecular level.

One researcher reports June 8 in Cell  has shown that when water temperatures inside the tank of a California two-spot Octopus drops below 10 degrees Celsius, this Octopus changes what proteins they produce by editing tons of their own RNA.

11

A molecular neurobiologist at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods hole, Mass, Joshua Rosenthal, says that this incredibly high level of molecular editing can also help octopuses’ brains function when temperatures plunge (as most of the this molecular editing occurs in the nervous system).

Scientists have known for decades that Cephalopods, such as Octopus, are masters of RNA. Only about 3% of mRNA in humans have the ability to be edited. Octopuses and Squids, on the other hand, take this editing to another level changing thousands of mRNA.

What scientist didn’t know about Cephalopods yet is what sets off the editing of the mRNA. Research now suggests that temperature is potentially the trigger. Rosenthal and his colleagues set off to test this potential trigger. They either heated or cooled the tank temperature of a California two spotted octopus and looked at what proteins it produced in its brain. They noticed that heating set off very minimal mRNA editing, while cool temperatures edited over 20,000 mRNA sites.

This relates to what we learn in AP Biology as we learned about the process of protein synthesis within cells. We learned that the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell (such as the cells of a animal like an Octopus) contain chromosomes consisting of DNA. This DNA holds the instructions to synthesizing proteins, and mRNA is formed and  transports these instructions. The mRNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores and finds the ribosomes in the cytosol or on the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum to carry out the instructions the mRNA holds and enter the next stage of the protein synthesis. What we learn here, however, is that it is not always a direct path for the mRNA to the ribosomes. Especially in these Octopuses, the mRNA is edited and the instructions they carry get changed and with this they get sent to different Ribosomes where different proteins from the ones originally instructed are formed.

This discovery of Cephalopods high levels of molecular editing is a very fascinating insight as it shows us the that cell activities aren’t as straight forward as sometimes they may seem. As humans, we often live in suitable living conditions and our cells create proteins simply based off the instructions of our DNA. We carry out the process that is typically learned in AP biology. But for species such as the California two- spotted Octopus, this simplistic process is not always followed. The instructions held by the mRNA are edited creating different proteins. This makes it  clear that Octopuses are not only different from many species on the outside, but on a molecular level too.

I have often wondered how unique species such as the Octopus are so different from us, not only in ways we can see but also on a internal or molecular level too! Do you know of any other unique species that are also this molecularly distinct from humans?

 

Does Lifestyle and Diet Affect Immune System Aging?

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On October 31, 2023

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Have you ever heard of the thymus? If not, most people could probably say the same, despite the enormous role it plays in our overall health. The thymus is a small gland in the upper part of the chest that is crucial to the immune systems of children. After puberty, the gland was previously thought to become smaller, gradually turn to fat through a process called fatty regeneration, and lose its function. Through the use of CT scans, a recent study shows that contrary to prior belief, this organ can be significant in adults as well, and the state of it can be influenced by lifestyle, age, and sex.

Diagram showing the position of the thymus gland CRUK 362

The main function of the thymus is to develop all the body’s immune cells before puberty. In order to carry out this function, the gland produces the hormone thymosin. Cells called lymphocytes pass through the thymus where they are fully developed into T cells, with the help of the hormone. Once they are fully developed, they are transferred to the lymph nodes where they help the body fight off infections and prevent autoimmune diseases. Autoimmune diseases occur when an immune system attacks cells from its own body. Have you ever touched your neck when sick and felt a small swollen part? Those are your lymph nodes! When you have an upper respiratory infection, more T cells rush to your lymph nodes to help your body fight off the illness. This is just one example of your immune system in action.

When you think of proteins, what is the first thing you think of? As presented in the AP Biology curriculum, proteins are not just a food group we eat everyday, though they are still very important to ingest! They are part of every cell in our bodies and therefore are crucial to the immune system and the thymus. Immune cells have receptor proteins attached to them that bind to foreign and potentially harmful substances, also called antigens. When the proteins bind to the substance, they trigger the body’s immune system to fight off the antigen. There are two types of immune systems: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system fights antigens mostly using killer cells and phagocytes (“eater cells”). The adaptive immune system makes antibodies that are made to fight off specific germs that the cell recognizes.

A new study performed in Sweden looked at the CT scans of 1000 people between the ages of 50-64, and examined the state of their thymuses. The people previously participated in the SCAPIS study which inspected their lifestyles and dietary habits. Results found that 6 out of 10 of the participants had a thymus that was completely turned to fat. It was more common in men and obese people. Dietary habits such as low fiber intake caused more fatty regeneration. People whose thymuses endured more fatty regeneration showed evidence of lower T cell regeneration. Ultimately, the CT scans showed the functionality of the thymus and the immune system. More studies must be performed to fully know whether or not the aging of the immune system affects our health, which is why this research will be expanded to the other 4000 participants of the SCAPIS study.

While people cannot change their sex and age, they can change their lifestyles. This study presents new information that can be used to help people improve their health. For example, I get the common cold once every few months and sometimes the grueling symptoms last for weeks. In the future, I will try to increase my fiber intake over a long period of time, which could possibly lower my chances of getting sick, feeling the harsh symptoms, or having them for a long time. I invite any and all comments to tell me whether or not this information could influence your lifestyle, and how.

A Sustainable Breakthrough To Rescue Drinking Water

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On October 31, 2023

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Water is a necessity for all living things. Water is fundamental component of cells and is essential for various biological processes. Water serves as a medium for the transport of nutrients in both plants and animals. In plants, water is crucial for the uptake of minerals from the soil and their movement within the plant. For humans, access to clean and safe drinking water is crucial for survival and good health. Lack of clean water can lead to waterborne diseases and other health issues.

Water drop impact on a water-surface - (2)

According to a study conducted at the University of Bath, Swansea, and Edinburgh students found a breakthrough method to supply drinking water to disaster zones with limited electrical power. Unlike your typical way of  reverse osmosis where a high pressure pump is used to increase the pressure on the salt from the seawater so that the salt can be extracted from the water. The water is then forced to cross semi-permeable RO membrane. The primary purpose of an RO membrane is to selectively allow the passage of water molecules while preventing the passage of contaminants. In the students’ approach they use a small amount of electrical power to draw the ions to go though the membrane which also bring the water molecules with them. This also reduces the risk for membrane clogging but also less electrical power. The Professor Frank Marken also stated that with this breakthrough they could also be able to use it in the medical field by such as applications for dosing systems like insulin. This refers to the adaptability of the technology for medical use. The process, which utilizes a small amount of electrical energy to move ions through a membrane, could be miniaturized and applied to create precise dosing systems. The method allows for precise control over the movement of ions through the membrane. In a medical context, this could translate to a highly controlled and precise dosing mechanism. For medications like insulin, where accuracy is crucial to manage blood sugar levels effectively, such precision is highly desirable

Reverse osmosis

In AP Biology, We tried to use the principles of osmosis to determine different concentrations of various unlabeled solutions. In osmosis, water moves through the membrane to equalize the concentration of solute on both sides. The driving force behind osmosis is the difference in concentration, commonly referred to as the concentration gradient. The side with lower solute concentration is often called hypotonic, while the side with higher solute concentration is hypertonic. There are three main types of solutions based on their osmotic pressure and their effects on cells, isotonic solution, hypertonic solution, and hypotonic solution. The direction of water movement in osmosis is influenced by the relative concentrations of solutes on either side of the membrane. Water moves from areas of lower solute concentration (hypotonic) to areas of higher solute concentration (hypertonic) until equilibrium is reached. With the principles of osmosis we then would calculate each different solution to find the water potential. This scientific breakthrough of being able to make seawater into drinkable water with less electrical power is breathtaking. Not only does this new technique use a small amount of electrical energy. This makes the process more energy-efficient and reduces energy waste. This method could be applied on a smaller scale, making it suitable for areas where there is a need for drinking water but limited infrastructure for example, deserts and other remote areas which can help people who can not obtain fresh drinkable water a bigger chance to obtain water. Can you think of any other places that can benefit from this experiment?

Echoes of the Past: How Neanderthal Genetics Shape Our Experience of Pain Today

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On October 31, 2023

In Student Post

Have you ever wondered why you feel pain more intensely than others? You might just share a special genetic connection with our ancient ancestors, the Neanderthals! In a groundbreaking study published in Communications Biology, scientists have unearthed remarkable insights into how our Neanderthal ancestry influences modern human genetics, particularly in pain sensitivity. Led by a consortium of international universities, the researchers deeply examined the genetic nuances that dictate our sensory responses to pain.

Central to the study was the SCN9A gene, notorious for its role in sensory neurons and pain perception. Three particular Neanderthal variants of this gene were found to be integral in modulating sensitivity to pain caused by skin pricking after exposure to mustard oil. When the skin is pricked, we learned that sensory neurons immediately engage; dendrites, intricate extensions of the neurons, adeptly capture stimuli from nerve cells within the skin. This triggers a signal that travels along the neuron’s axon, a specialized tail-like conduit, channeling the impulses toward their destination. At the terminus of the axon, the signal reaches a synaptic cleft, a minute gap where the first neuron communicates with the dendrites of the subsequent neuron, ensuring the continuity of the pain signal’s journey through the nervous system. These unique variants in the Neanderthal seem to lower the pain threshold, rendering individuals more susceptible to experiencing heightened pain from specific stimuli.

1212 Sensory Neuron Test Water

The study unfolded with meticulous attention to detail, analyzing the pain thresholds of nearly 2,000 individuals subjected to various stimuli. A fascinating revelation was the prevalence of these Neanderthal gene variants, particularly amongst populations with pronounced Native American ancestry. This leads to intriguing speculations regarding the genetic tapestry and its evolution over time due to migration and population-specific developments.

Human evolution scheme

One captivating aspect of the study is its exploration into whether these Neanderthal-inherited genetic variants were an evolutionary advantage. The specialized role of these genes in sensitizing sensory neurons is seen as a survival trait, aiding in avoidance behaviors against potential harm.

This research brings up the intriguing possibility that Neanderthal-inherited genetic variants may have been an evolutionary advantage. Specifically, it looks at genes that could make sensory neurons more sensitive, potentially a survival trait to avoid harm. Personally, this part of the study stands out. It makes me wonder what other traits we might have inherited from our ancient ancestors. It seems that our genetic past could have a strong influence on fundamental aspects like pain perception.

The study emphasizes that these findings are initial insights. Neanderthal genetics play a role in pain perception, but many other factors, like environment and psychology, also contribute. This comprehensive approach to understanding pain is a big step forward, and there’s still much more to learn. It raises interesting questions about how our evolutionary past might influence other aspects of human biology. What are your thoughts on these new findings? Let’s discuss.

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