BioQuakes

AP Biology class blog for discussing current research in Biology

Protein, the Key to Health and Wellbeing

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On March 26, 2025

In Student Post

​Intro

Recent research has shed new light on the optimal amount of protein individuals should consume to support various aspects of health, including muscle growth, weight management, and overall well-being. Protein, a key macronutrient, plays an important role in building and repairing tissues, producing enzymes and hormones, and supporting immune function. However the most important long term function of protein in the body is the upkeep of skeletal muscle in such a way that people can move and feel better. Determining the appropriate protein intake is essential for maximizing these benefits.​

Current Protein Intake Recommendations

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for protein has traditionally been set at 0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight per day for adults. This is up from recommendations put out in prior years that often hovered around .6 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. This new amount of protein is optimal for most individuals to feel, move and perform at their best. This works especially well for inactive people as this amount of protein will benefit daily functions as well as allow to body to pack on small amounts of muscle while inactive. For people who do lots of physical activity, especially weight training, cross fit, intense cardio, and calisthenics, increased protein consumption is liked with enhanced muscle protein synthesis. Consuming protein in the range of 1.6 to 2.2 grams per kilogram of body weight per day is effective for promoting muscle growth and recovery. Additionally, distributing protein intake evenly across meals ,approximately every three to four hours or about 4-5 small meals per day, and consuming 15 to 25 grams of protein within two hours post-exercise, otherwise known as the anabolic window, can further optimize muscle protein synthesis.

This is an image of food items that would help to create a balanced healthy diet when incorporated with the protein values mentioned

 

Protein’s Role in Weight Management

Higher protein diets have another major benefit in which they make you feel very full. Think about the difference between eating a pound of steak and a pound of lettuce, the lettuce sounds a little less daunting due to the fact that it is less satiating. This can aid in weight management by reducing calorie intake over the course of weeks months and years. Protein-rich foods require more energy to digest, absorb, and metabolize, this is called thermic effect of food. The increased energy used in digesting food as well as the fact that you simple eat less on high protein diets can make weight loss and maintenance efforts much easier. I have experienced this in my life. When going from consuming 85 to 130 grams of protein a day I naturally lost body fat while feeling fuller​.

Health Considerations and Potential Risks

While increasing protein intake offers several benefits, it’s essential to consider individual health status and dietary balance. For most healthy individuals, consuming protein within the recommended ranges is pretty much harmless .However, those with existing kidney conditions should consult healthcare professionals before making significant changes to their protein consumption, as excessive protein intake can exacerbate kidney issues. The reason for this is that excess protein consumption leads to protein buildup in the blood and urine. In normal people the kidneys and liver are perfectly capably of filtering out there discrepancies however in people with damaged kidneys their body is unable to keep up with the load therefore leading to further damage.

Conclusion

Understanding the optimal amount of protein intake directly relates to AP Biology through the application of anabolic reactions such as protein synthesis wherein enzymes use amino acids to replace micro tears formed by exercise and daily movements to replace damaged or broken parts of muscle proteins. The building and maintaining of these proteins requires large amounts of all 20 essential amino acids as well as water and creatin a building block of creatine. Free muscle cells in the blood leads to the production of an inhibitor for the enzyme that builds muscle therefore leading to muscle atrophy. That is why people who eat little to no protein often have very low levels of muscle mass as they are not building or sustaining their muscle therefore it dipoles into the bloodstream. Additionally, the role of enzymes in protein digestion and the thermic effect of food ties into AP Bio topics on enzyme function and energy transfer. Research stresses the importance of customizing protein intake to individual needs, considering things such as activity level, health goals, and overall diet quality. The importance of this topic in my life comes from what fitness means to me. In times in my life when I was stressed or felt lost focusing on my health and fitness always made a huge difference in my mood and quality of life. By sharing some of the information that helped me (and took me years to learn) I hope that I can help others to become happier and healthier. If you have any questions about how to get this amount of protein or if you are an outlier and think you need more or less feel free to reach out and ask any questions. I would love to answer anything you throw at me and will do so as soon as I can.​ Thank you very much for reading.

CRISPR: Gene Editing and Its Ethical Dilemmas

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On March 26, 2025

In Student Post

CRISPR: Revolutionizing Gene Editing and Its Ethical Implications

The revolutionary technique known as CRISPR-Cas9 has revolutionized the study of genetics in recent years. With the use of this potent instrument, researchers can precisely alter the DNA of living things, creating new opportunities in fields such as agriculture and medicine. But great power also comes with great responsibility, and the ethical issues surrounding CRISPR are just as important as its possible uses.

Cas9 in complex with sgRNA and target DNA

Understanding CRISPR-Cas9

CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a natural defense mechanism found in bacteria. These organisms use CRISPR sequences to identify and cut the DNA of invading viruses, thereby neutralizing threats. Scientists have harnessed this system, pairing it with the Cas9 enzyme to create a method for editing genes with unprecedented accuracy. The process involves designing a small piece of RNA that matches the target DNA sequence, guiding Cas9 to the exact location for modification.

 

Applications in Medicine

Treating hereditary illnesses is one of the most exciting uses of CRISPR. Scientists are looking at using it to fix the mutations that cause diseases like cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. Instead of just treating symptoms, CRISPR may be able to treat diseases at their root by fixing damaged genes. The safety and effectiveness of these methods are being evaluated in clinical studies, giving patients with diseases that were previously incurable hope.

 

Advancements in Agriculture 

CRISPR is causing a stir in agriculture in addition to medicine. Crops that are more resilient to environmental stressors, illnesses, and pests are being developed by scientists. To solve food security issues in different regions of the world, gene-edited plants, for example, can be designed to have improved nutritional profiles or to tolerate drought conditions. These developments may result in increased crop yields and more environmentally friendly farming methods.

Moral Aspects to Take into Account

Although CRISPR has enormous potential advantages, there are also serious ethical issues. The potential for off-target effects, in which unwanted portions of the genome are changed and result in unanticipated outcomes, is one significant problem.

Cas9 in complex with sgRNA and target DNA A digital sketch depicting a gene-edit

AP Bio Relation

We have studied the mechanisms of transcription, translation, and DNA replication in our AP Biology course. Gaining an understanding of these basic mechanisms is essential to understanding how CRISPR-Cas9 can accurately target and alter particular genes. This technology shows how fundamental knowledge may result in game-changing inventions and is an example of how molecular biology topics we have studied can be applied in real-world settings.The discovery of CRISPR-Cas9 marks a turning point in science by combining enormous promise with difficult moral dilemmas. What do you think about the application of gene-editing technology to people? How does society strike a balance between moral obligation and innovation? Leave a comment below with your opinions.

 

iPSCs and Synthesizing Heart Muscle Tissue

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On March 20, 2025

In Student Post

Jyotsna Joshi’s Study

In order to determine the practicality of iPSCs in medicinal research, Jyotsna Joshi and her associates began experimentation as to how effectively iPSCs can create heart muscle tissue (cardiomyocytes) for the purpose of treatment research for arrhythmia.  Dr. Joshi and her colleagues were able to determine that the iPSCs were able to create tissue suitable for experimentation and that would react similarly to that of cardiomyocytes.  Jyotsna concludes her research by stating the potential harms of iPSCs and by explaining the benefits that iPSCs can give to research in arrhythmia.

What are hPSCs and iPSCs?

A human Pluripotent Stem Cell (hPSC) is a cell capable of not only copying itself through mitosis but also synthesizing cells that are different from the original Stem Cell. For example, an hPSC is capable of dividing and one of the sister cells could be a skin cell, an epithelial cell, or any other cell that the body requires.  hPSCs are mostly present during the pre-embryonic stage of human development where the developing organism is a blastocyst.  These cells are responsible for creating cellular variation in the fetus that is necessary for early growth but becomes less essential to humans as they grow in size as the cells derived from hPSCs can undergo mitosis.  This leads to many hPSCs being discarded as the human grows into adulthood with very few remaining as Adult Stem Cells (ASCs).  An induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (iPSC) is a somatic cell that has been genetically re-engineered (likely using CRISPR technology) to have the same attributes as an hPSC.  This is done by reintroducing pluripotent associated genes into a skin or blood cell, making it able to perform the same functions that an hPSC is capable of.

Stem cell differentiation into various tissue types

What is the Problem?

For scientific research in cardiovascular tissue scientists often need cardiomyocytes to undergo experimentation.  However, any cells in the adult human body are incapable of undergoing mitosis including muscle tissue.  This can be due to a multitude of reasons such as nerve cells being incapable of undergoing mitosis due to the unique shape of the cells with their long axons preventing telophase from being able to occur.  In the case of muscle tissue, such as that in the heart/cardiovascular system, they are incapable of undergoing cell division due to how highly specialized their function is as a cell and as a mass of tissue.  Simply put, a muscle cell is incapable of undergoing mitosis because its contractile nature makes the process incapable of occurring.  In muscle tissue, to prevent mitosis from occurring, these cells do not pass through the G1 DNA checkpoint and are perpetually stuck in the G0 phase. This means that grown adults who do not have the ASCs required to rebuild cardiovascular tissue will receive permanent damage if cardiomyocytes were to become damaged in some way (such as alterations in the genomes of the cells).  This makes extracting this tissue via biopsies for research purposes very dangerous and very limiting in the amount of tissue that can be taken.

The Problems with Modern Stem Cell Experimentation:

The potential methods by which scientists can get a hold of heart muscle cells (Cardiomyocytes/CMs) are either through direct extraction or synthesizing tissue using laboratory stem cells. As stated before hPSCs are only abundant in the human body during the pre-embryonic faze of human development and are scarce as humans reach adulthood.  Therefore the main component in stem cell transplants (such as in the case of fixing chronic arrhythmia), those being the stem cells themselves, are incredibly difficult to come across.  Scientists have proposed multiple different answers to this problem, but most of them are unsatisfactory.  For example, it is an option to extract embryonic hPSCs from a mother’s umbilical cord and store those hPSCs for the future use of the offspring.  Another option is to extract ASCs from a patient (or a donor with similar DNA to a sibling) and replicate them in a lab through mitosis and reintegrate the new and previous stem cells back into the patient.  The problem with these systems is that as time goes on stem cells in laboratories have tendencies to behave similarly to cancer cells in that their behavior and replication become more sporadic than when it was inside the body.    Therefore, such stem cells are often wastefully discarded.  Another major flaw of stem cell transplants is the limited number of them in the adult human body to be extracted and genetically modified.  This drastically decreases the practicality of stem cells. The process is also very expensive as extraction and genetic modification are both very difficult and require a lot of resources to pull off.

The introduction of iPSCs in treatment is able to mitigate these problems in modern stem cell transplants.  For starters, iPSCs are not ASCs being extracted from the body and being modified, but rather blood and skin cells that have undergone genetic engineering.  This means that doctors are no longer restricted to procedurally removing ASCs from the body to create useful stem cells which will reduce overall cost and patient safety in that aspect.  The potential abundance of iPSCs also alleviates the need for long-term stem cell storage.

iPSCs in Treating Chronic Heart Arrhythmia:

Arrhythmia occurs when a person’s heartbeat behaves abnormally.  This disease can be caused by the cardiomyocytes responding incorrectly to a signal from associated neurons.  Chronic Heart Arrhythmia causes significant pain in the patient, greatly increases the likelihood of heart attacks, can affect blood pressure, and increases the likelihood of stroke.  To treat this disorder, researchers must have heart tissue to determine what treatment options work most effectively at correcting the patient’s heartbeat. iPSCs provide cardiomyocytes in mass quantities as iPSCs can perform mitosis and become factories for these cells and only require blood or skin cells for reprogramming.  This heavily speeds up research for more effective treatments for arrhythmia as more resources are readily available and easy to produce.  iPSCs are a pathway to more effective treatments for the future and more efficient and available experimentation in cellular biology.

What Does This Mean?

I believe that iPSCs’ potential is not limited to just heart arrhythmia, but can be applied to any cell that is difficult to acquire naturally (i.e. neurons).  iPSCs, especially as scientists begin to maximize their similarities to hPSCs, are going to pave a path to the future of biological experimentation in a similar way that HeLa cells did for cancer research; By providing cells in mass that can represent tissue matter scientists wish to experiment on, iPSCs are going to be able to make experimentation much cheaper, simpler, safer, and practical.  We still have to inquire further about the negative consequences of iPSCs, as the technology to create them and their existence is still very recent (first developed around 2007).  Looking further into the future still, there is a potential that these iPSCs can functionally replace stem cells, however, this is still a point of contention among scientists as to its plausibility.  Do you think iPSCs could potentially be used in practical medicine beyond research?  If this is the case, would you trust iPSCs to function as a normal PSC would be able to?

New Findings suggest Cancer Cure in the Near Future

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On March 20, 2025

In Student Post

Have you heard about King’s College London’s recent and fascinating discovery? It all comes down to BeeR, a unique bacterial protein that creates a stiff tube rather than a normal filament. To see exactly how BeeR functions, scientists used extremely sophisticated cryo-electron microscopes. To their surprise, they discovered a hollow cavity in the middle of this tube-like construction. That empty area is large enough to fit cancer-fighting medications, which is truly amazing. The researchers found that the BeeR protein may be built and destroyed at will utilizing ATP. This suggests that BeeR can transport medications directly to tumor locations, functioning as a miniature cargo box. It’s an ingenious approach that could revolutionize the way we treat cancer in the future. The idea that such a small protein could have such a significant impact is simply astounding!

 

Scientists realize that this discovery could lead to a medical revolution, despite the fact that the precise function of BeeR in bacteria is still unknown. To find out more about BeeR’s unique features, specialists from the University of Washington and King’s College London have been putting in endless effort. They think that by using this amazing bacterial protein, they might create more effective medicines for difficult illnesses like cancer. BeeR-based drug delivery devices are already being tested in breast cancer models by Prosemble, a spin-out business. If all goes according to plan, cancer medications may be administered to patients more efficiently than in the past. Imagine having the ability to keep medications inside BeeR and only release them where they are most required.  This finding serves as a reminder that sometimes the solutions to our most pressing health issues can be found in nature. All of the participants in this study have high hopes for the future. The road to beating cancer may be easier to see than we ever thought with BeeR!

Similar to the tubular structure of the BeeR protein, I studied how proteins fold and operate in my biology class. I discovered that ATP is the primary energy source for numerous biological functions, which is similar to how BeeR assembles and disassembles. We also looked at how signaling pathways help cells coordinate important processes like growth and division, which is directly related to the concept of more accurate cancer medication delivery. Everything I’ve learned about proteins, ATP, and cell-to-cell communication is brought together in a fascinating real-world example when I see BeeR in action.

File:EGFR signaling pathway.svg
By EGFR_signaling_pathway.png: Eikuchderivative work: Anassagora (talk) – EGFR_signaling_pathway.png, Public Domain, Link

CRISPR and Sickle Cell Disease: A New Breakthrough in Medicine

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On March 18, 2025

In Student Post

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a genetic disorder that affects millions of people around the world, predominantly affecting people of African, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern descent. The disease stems from a single mutation in the HBB gene, which leads to the production of abnormal hemoglobin S. This abnormality causes red blood cells to have a rigid, almost crescent shape, resulting in episodes of severe pain, organ damage, and decreased life expectancy.

Traditional methods of treatment have focused on managing symptoms instead of fighting the root cause. There were blood transfusions, pain relief, and medications like hydroxyurea(which increases the production of fetal hemoglobin, which does not sickle). However, recent advancements in CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology have shown a potential route to curing sickle cell once and for all.

The schematic diagram of CRISPR-Cas9

CRISPR Cas9 Diagram by Zhejiang University

CRISPR-Cas9 is a groundbreaking gene-editing tool that enables the precise modification of DNA sequences.

A study by Frangoul et al. reported amazing results in the treatment of SCD using CRISPR-based gene therapy. The trial focused on exagamgolene autotemcel, which is a gene therapy designed to permanently increase fetal hemoglobin levels by disrupting the BCL11A gene. The study found that 93.5% of participants had no severe vasco-occlusive crises over a 12 month period. The FDA recently approved two gene therapies, Casgevy, which is associated with this study, and Lyfgenia. Casgevy modifies the Hematopoietic stem cells(HSC) to boost fetal hemoglobin levels, while Lyfgenia uses a lentiviral vector to insert a modified hemoglobin gene into the patient’s HSC. In essence a replacement vs a repair.

Casgevy has been preferred because Lyfgenia has a warning for potential long-term risks, as integrating lentiviral vectors into the genome carries a risk of causing mutations. However, both therapies do represent a major milestone in being able to treat sickle cell as a disease, rather than just offering symptomatic care.

While gene therapy is a new and exciting development, accessibility remains a major issue. The current cost of these therapies is often in the millions of dollars per patient, making them utterly inaccessible to a large majority of people who need them. Additionally, these treatments require bone marrow conditioning (which involves chemotherapy, among other things) because these treatments involve modifying hematopoietic stem cells, which prepares the body to accept the modified cells.

Scientists are currently working on non-toxic conditioning methods to eliminate the need for chemo, as well as more affordable and scalable gene therapy techniques. In the future, researchers hope to develop simpler and safer genetic interventions which can be administered in only a single shot.

Another study by Desai et Al. highlights an interesting fact that the genetically modified HSC exhibited stable engraftment and long-term production, meaning that the modifications by Casgevy are possibly a one-time cure.

These advancements directly connect to what we’ve studied in AP Biology. The role of CRISPR in gene editing demonstrates the power of manipulating transcription and translation, concepts that are directly related to nucleic acids. Additionally, since both techniques target hematopoietic stem cells, they showcase how stem cells differentiate into multiple blood cells, including red blood cells. Finally, through Lufgenia’s, it’s seen how viruses can be engineered to deliver beneficial genetic material as opposed to how COVID-19 developed based on genetic material.

I chose to write this as watching the TV show Pitt, there was a character with sickle cell, and I wanted to see about potential treatments. Also, sickle cell disproportionately affects marginalized communities, and these changes, although they may be too expensive, represent hope for the future.

Do you believe gene therapy will become the standard treatment for genetic diseases like SCD? What do you think should be done to make these treatments more widely accessible?

Let’s discuss!

Photosynthesis in the Dark: How Arctic Microalgae Challenge What We Know

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On March 18, 2025

In Student Post

When we think of photosynthesis, we picture lush green plants soaking up the sun, but what if I told you that photosynthesis can happen in near-total darkness? Recent research has uncovered a mind-blowing adaptation in Arctic microalgae that allows them to photosynthesize under extreme low-light conditions, pushing the boundaries of what we thought was possible.

A study published in Nature Communications found that Arctic microalgae can perform photosynthesis in the central Arctic Ocean at light levels previously believed to be too low for the process to occur. Researchers observed that as early as March, just after the long polar night, these microscopic organisms began photosynthesizing at depths of 50 meters below the sea level, where only trace amounts of light penetrate.

Micrasterias rotata 2019

This challenges the widely accepted notion that photosynthesis requires significant light exposure and suggests that some organisms can operate near the absolute minimum energy required to drive the process. But how is this possible?

The key lies in their highly efficient light-harvesting complexes (LHCs). These structures, packed with pigments such as chlorophyll, capture and transfer even the faintest light to power photosynthesis. This adaptation allows Arctic microalgae to function in conditions where light levels are about 37,000 to 50,000 times lower than those required by terrestrial plants.

This study builds on earlier findings found in a phys.org article, which reported that these microalgae not only survive but actively grow under minimal light conditions. Another report from ScienceDaily emphasized that these adaptations may play a crucial role in carbon cycling and Arctic food webs.

In our AP Biology class, we learned that photosynthesis is divided into two stages: light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. The light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes and require light to generate ATP and NADPH, which fuel the Calvin cycle. But what happens when there’s barely any light?

These Arctic microalgae seem to have evolved ultra-efficient photosystems that maximize photon absorption, meaning they can run light-dependent reactions with the smallest possible amounts of energy. This has major implications for understanding the limits of photosynthetic life, especially in deep-sea environments.

With climate change altering Arctic ice coverage and light availability, understanding how these microalgae function is critical. Their ability to photosynthesize in near darkness could influence models of global carbon cycling and help scientists predict ecosystem responses to climate shifts.

Furthermore, this discovery raises exciting possibilities for engineering crops with more efficient photosynthetic machinery, potentially improving food production in low-light conditions or space-based agriculture.

So, could these findings help us grow crops in extreme environments? What other organisms might have evolved to use photosynthesis at such low light levels? Let me know!

Electrical activity spurs growth of small-cell lung cancer

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On March 10, 2025

In Student Post

Earlier this month, a team of scientists and researchers from across the United States, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom collaborated on a research study about the relationship between electrical activity and cancer. They explored how the neuroendocrine cells in small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) exhibit electrical excitability. In other words, cells that receive signals from the nervous system and respond by releasing hormones into the bloodstream, have demonstrated the ability to produce an electrical signal in response to a stimulus. The researchers ultimately found that electrical excitability plays a role in the growth of SCLC.

Neuroendocrine cells are similar to neurons in that both cell types are marked by calcium activity. The scientists tested whether the neuroendocrine cells in small-cell lung cancer would exhibit electrical excitability through the combined use of patch-clamp recording (a technique enabling researchers to measure current and voltages across a membrane through ion channels) and calcium imaging. They ultimately found that the non-neuroendocrine cells didn’t display electrical excitability, indicating that this signaling ability is only present in the neuroendocrine cells. Additionally, the researchers suggested that their finding of a significant increase in nerve fibers growing into early SCLC tumors indicates that the fibers form connections with cancer cells and interact with the cancer cells, similar to how nerves interact. Subsequently, the scientists proposed that electrical activity among neuroendocrine cells causes further development of SCLC.

Neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia

This study has given scientists potential avenues to finding new treatments for aggressive cancers like SCLC. The authors’ research, and studies similar to it, are crucial for developing a greater understanding of how cancer grows, and subsequently how to stop cancer from spreading.

Our most recent AP Bio unit on mitosis and genetics covered the topic of cancer as well. We learned that the cancer develops when a mutation in a cell bypasses checkpoints in the mitosis cycle, then begins to divide and grow. Additionally, we studied how mutations disrupt oncogenes, regulatory genes, and tumor suppressor gene, which ultimately results in cancer. SCLC, like other aggressive cancers, is typically caused by mutations in tumor-suppressor genes. While lung cancer and other aggressive cancers are notoriously difficult to treat, this study on electrical activity in cancer cells could hopefully lead to new treatment methods, as well as a deeper understanding of how cancer grows in the human body.

What do you think about the potential of studying electrical activity in cancer cells? Do you think it’s possible for scientists to develop new solutions based on the discovery of electrical activity in SCLC cells? I hope and believe that this research contributes to novel treatment methods for certain cancers.

The Hidden Link: Plants and Humans, More Similar Than You Think.

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On March 10, 2025

In Student Post

Humans and Plants appear as different as can be on the outside. Humans move while plants are stationary. Humans obtain energy through food, while plants make  their own food. But on the biochemical level, we are more similar to plants than one might think. Scientists continue to discover links between humans and plants. 

In fact, a research team at the University of Kentucky created a study that reveals a biochemical connection between plant immune responses and human neurological health. They discovered that the metabolic pathways in regulating vitamin B6 homeostasis—critical in certain forms of epilepsy and immune function—are shared by both plants and humans. 

To better understand this link, the team focused on lysine catabolism. Lysine is an essential amino acid used for protein synthesis, calcium absorption, and the production of enzymes, hormones, and antibodies. The team observed that plants produce Δ1-piperideine-6-carboxylic acid (P6C) during the breakdown of lysine. When the level of P6C in plants increases, it disrupts the vitamin B6 balance, exhausting key forms of B6 and compromising the plant’s immune system. 

Palak - spinach plant from lalbagh 2349

Accumulation of P6C also leads to negative effects in humans, specifically in neurological health. A buildup of P6C in humans is linked to pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy, a genetic disorder that depletes vitamin B6 and can lead to prolonged seizures. People with this type of epilepsy can be given large medical doses of pyridoxine, a type of vitamin B6 found in food, to regulate their depleted levels. This connection enforces the shared metabolic pathway between plants and humans. 

Huazhen Liu, the study’s lead researcher, claims that the study’s findings—that the same molecular pathways that produce P6C regulate immunity in plants and neurological health in humans—highlight deep evolutionary processes that configure biochemical signaling. These findings emphasize how vitamins and amino acids have been conserved for millions of years through evolution, influencing both plant and human functions.

 Researchers found that certain enzymes found in lysine metabolism were originally acquired in plants from bacterial sources due to horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Horizontal gene transfer is when genes are transferred between different species and it plays an important role in eukaryotic genetic evolution. Over time, these enzymes were repurposed to regulate vitamin B6 levels and detoxify reactive metabolic intermediates, which are short-lived high-energy molecules. Furthermore, plant species that have acquired these genes from bacteria maintained more stable B6 levels, thus increasing their chance of survival and reproduction. 

Additionally, HGT relates to molecular fitness, a topic from AP Biology, because they both involve the inheritance of molecular adaptations that improve an organism’s chance of survival and reproduction. Whether it’s bacterial enzymes that regulate B6 levels in plants or adulthood lactase persistence in humans, these adaptations provide evolutionary advantages. Molecular fitness refers to competition due to different metabolic processes occurring at the cellular level, where certain molecular adaptations allow organisms to make better use of available resources, increasing the likelihood of survival and passing on these traits. The key difference between the two is that molecular fitness arises from genetic variations inherited from parents, for example, through a mutation. HGT, however, occurs when advantageous genes or adaptations are transferred from one species to another rather than as a random mutation. Despite this difference, both of these processes contribute to evolutionary successes and increased rates of survival for an organism in its environment. 

Ultimately, this research from the University of Kentucky study reveals a biochemical link between plants and humans through regulating the B6 vitamin and why it’s essential for immune responses and neurological health. This study also sheds light on the importance of diet for neurological health. As a teenager, I want to live a long and healthy life in the future, so learning about low B6 levels and its effects is very eye-opening for me. I want to do everything I can to regulate my vitamin B6. Eating plant-based foods, including spinach, bananas, and carrots, is one way I can easily consume the vitamin and potentially reduce the risk of pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy. As scientists continue to discover more biochemical links between humans and plants, we may find more ways a plant-based diet could support human health.

Original Article

https://w.wiki/DD2Y– link to wikimedia photo

Additional Links: Inherited Disorders of Lysine;  Horizontal Gene Transfer

Occurrence of Natural Selection in Tibetan Women

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On March 10, 2025

In Student Post

Scientists are finding that natural selection is occurring in women living in the mountains of Nepal. Ethnic Tibetan women have been able to adapt to the low-oxygen conditions, therefore allowing them to survive longer and bear more children. 

Researchers looked at 400 women ranging in ages from 46 to 86 years old living in this area. The women here face harsh environmental conditions with high altitude, reducing the amount of oxygen they take in. Typically, low oxygen levels can lead to tissue and brain damage. These conditions are also troubling for pregnant women. 

However, the women living here contain genes that help them survive these conditions, so the researchers wanted to explore the connection it has to their reproduction success. They found that the hemoglobin in the women’s blood who bore the most children was able to carry more oxygen than women who had fewer children. In addition to this, they had greater blood flow and wider left ventricles to pump oxygenated blood to the body. 

In all, these women added an increase in the understanding of how natural selection still occurs in humans today!

Tibetan Women

In our AP Biology class, we have recently learned about lactase persistence. As infants, our bodies contain an enzyme called lactase to break down a sugar in milk, called lactose, so we can digest milk. As we grow older, our bodies tend to lose this capability. However, 1/3 of the adult population has lactase persistence, where they continue to produce the amount of the lactase enzyme needed to break down lactose. Just like the genes of the women ethnic Tibetan, back then people with lactase persistence were able to gain more nutrients from milk leading them to be stronger, live longer, and reproduce more. Natural selection is an interesting thing and has always occurred in many different ways!

How much do you think natural selection still impacts us today? What other genes have been prominent in natural selection?

Kidney Cells Can Remember: A New Twist on Cellular Memory

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On March 7, 2025

In Student Post

New research shows that kidney cells, like neurons, can retain information and recognize patterns at the molecular level. New York University researchers discovered that human embryonic kidney cells exhibit a memory-related phenomenon known as the “massed-spaced effect,” which is commonly observed in the brain.

HEK 293

Researchers used an artificial gene that replicated memory-associated DNA to test kidney cells’ responses to chemical inputs. They specifically studied the function of CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein), a protein that is known to play a part in the way neurons form memories. Chemical signals cause CREB to become active in neurons, which helps to regulate the production of memory-related genes. The scientists aimed to determine whether kidney cells used a similar process.

They tested this by inserting a synthetic gene that resembled the DNA sequence that CREB normally binds to and contained instructions on how to produce a glowing protein after the activation of the memory gene. The amount of the glowing protein produced was used to measure CREB activation when kidney cells were exposed to chemical pulses that mimicked signals related to memory. They discovered that cells stored information more effectively when exposed to multiple short signals rather than a single long signal, just as neurons do. This shows that memory-related processes may not be limited to the brain.

While kidney cell “memory” will not help you learn math, this discovery could have a major impact on medicine. Scientists believe that understanding how non-neural cells receive information may lead to better treatments for disorders such as cancer and memory loss.

This discovery challenges standard ideas of memory and opens up possibilities for thinking about learning at the cellular level.

This study connects to what we have learned in AP Biology about cell communication and signaling. The researchers focused on the protein CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein), which is important in neuron memory formation. This is related to signal transduction pathways, in which an external signaling molecule (ligand) binds to a receptor, triggering a cascade of reactions inside the cell. When neurons receive a chemical signal (such as a neurotransmitter), secondary messengers such as cAMP are activated, which then activates protein kinases that phosphorylate CREB. As a transcription factor, CREB then binds to DNA and initiates gene expression changes that allow the cell to “remember” the signal. This method is a great example of how cells process and respond to external signals, which is an important concept in cell communication.

What do you think about the idea that memory might not be limited to the brain? Could this discovery change how we think about learning and disease treatments?

The Key to Finding Life on Mars: Microbes

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On March 7, 2025

In Student Post

Dvulgaris micrograph

The search for extraterrestrial life, particularly on Mars, has long been a driving force behind space exploration. Traditional approaches focus on detecting chemical biosignatures, potential byproducts of microbial metabolism such as organic molecules or atmospheric gases like methane, to infer the possibility of life. A recent study proposes a novel and potentially more definitive approach: detecting microbial motility. The ability of microorganisms to move, or “wiggle,” in a liquid environment could serve as a direct indicator of life, offering a promising alternative to conventional detection techniques.

Movement is a fundamental characteristic of many living organisms. On Earth, bacteria, archaea, and other microorganisms exhibit motility as a means of navigating their environment, seeking nutrients, and avoiding harmful conditions. Unlike chemical signatures, which may result from non-biological processes, microbial motion is an active behavior exclusive to living organisms. By focusing on motility, researchers aim to reduce false positives and establish a more definitive experiments for detecting life on Mars.

To investigate whether microbial motility could serve as a reliable indicator of life, researchers focused on three types of extremophiles: Bacillus subtilis, Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis, and Haloferax volcanii. These organisms were chosen because they can survive extreme environmental conditions, making them strong comparisons for potential Martian microbes. The study aimed to determine whether these microbes would actively migrate toward a nutrient source in a detectable and repeatable way, a process known as chemotaxis.

The experiment involved placing microbe-packed water droplets on one side of a two-chambered microscopic slide, while an aqueous solution rich in L-serine—an amino acid essential for protein synthesis and cell proliferation—was placed on the other side. Over three-hour experimental runs, all three microbial species exhibited motility, swimming from their original location to form visible “blobs” in the chamber containing L-serine. This confirmed that the microbes could detect and move toward a favorable chemical gradient, demonstrating a clear and measurable response.

One of the primary advantages of this method is its specificity. While chemical biosignatures can sometimes be ambiguous, movement is an inherently biological trait, making motility-based detection a more reliable indicator of life. Additionally, this technique allows for real-time observation, enabling scientists to immediately assess microbial activity without extensive laboratory analysis. Another key benefit is that motility detection does not rely on active metabolism. Many microorganisms enter a dormant state when faced with harsh environmental conditions, making them difficult to detect through metabolic markers. However, if rehydrated in a liquid medium, dormant microbes may resume movement, making them easier to identify.

This method also provides a practical advantage for planetary exploration. Instead of continuously monitoring microbial movement, scientists can simply check whether microbes have migrated into a nutrient-filled chamber. This is particularly useful in extremely cold environments, such as those on Mars, where microbial movement may be slow. If alien microbes move at a much slower rate than those on Earth, future studies may need to extend observation periods from hours to weeks to detect motility effectively.

Despite its potential, implementing this method on Mars presents several challenges. First, collecting suitable samples is crucial. The Martian surface is exposed to intense radiation and extreme temperatures, making it unlikely to support active life. However, subsurface environments may provide more stable conditions, protecting microbes from harsh surface conditions. Thus, future missions would need to prioritize drilling into the Martian crust to obtain relevant samples.

Another challenge is the development of compact and reliable instruments capable of operating in Mars’ extreme conditions. These instruments must be durable enough to withstand the journey to Mars while maintaining the sensitivity required to detect microbial motion. Additionally, contamination control is essential to ensure that any detected movement originates from Martian microbes rather than Earth-based contaminants. Strict sterilization protocols and monitoring procedures would be necessary to maintain the integrity of the findings.

Furthermore, while L-serine was effective in prompting movement in Earth-based extremophiles, its is possible that extraterrestrial microbes won’t respond similarly. The challenge of determining what chemical attractants might be relevant to alien biochemistry remains an unanswered question in astrobiology. Future research will need to refine this method by testing different microbes and amino acids to ensure broader applicability.

This study connects incorporates knowledge from our Unit 1 study of prokaryotic cell structure, specifically on page 1 of Cell notes, where we discussed the role of  the flagella that enables movement in response to environmental stimuli. The ability of bacteria to move toward favorable conditions and away from harmful ones is an essential survival mechanism on Earth, and this same principle is being applied to the search for life on Mars.

As someone who grew up going to the planetarium at the Museum of Natural History in Manhattan, I used to sit in my seat wondering if the planets Neil Degrasse Tyson was commenting on had people like me. While it is very unlikely to find a life-form similar to our own on Mars, the thought of any life being there is fascinating. However, it is entirely possible that somewhere out in the vast expanses of the universe there are human-like beings. As technology advances and our knowledge of microbial motility expands, this research could bring humanity one step closer to discovering who and what else we share the cosmos with.

Your Dessert Stomach is All in Your Head!

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On March 7, 2025

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Have you ever wondered why you feel like you can’t take another bite of your dinner but you know that there’s room for dessert? This feeling doesn’t just come from the desire for a sweet treat; it comes from an evolutionarily-beneficial nerve signal to intake sugar, and these signals come from the very same nerve cells that tell us that we’re full. Our “dessert stomach” is closely connected to our reward pathways and feeling satiated.

File:StrawberrySundae.jpgBy USDA photo by: Ken Hammond – USDA, Public Domain, Link

Researchers looking to investigate the origin of the dessert stomach examined the reaction and brain activity of completely satiated mice to sugar. They found that these mice still ate “dessert” even when they were full, and inspection of brain activity proved that the POMC neurons, a group of nerve cells in the hypothalamus associated with metabolism, were responsible for this reaction. The POMC neurons become active when the mouse is full, releasing the signals that indicate the feeling of fullness. However, the POMC neurons activate molecules that stimulate the release of ß-endorphin, a naturally occurring opiate in the body which interacts with opiate receptors to generate a sense of reward. This feeling of reward caused the mice to consume sugar beyond their feeling of fullness. The activation of this neural and opioid pathway was only observed when satiated mice ate additional sugar; the same effects were not observed when satiated mice ate additional non-sugary food, nor when ß-endorphin release was initiated in hungry mice. Additionally, the researchers found that the mice had no interest in consuming additional sugar when these pathways were blocked.

File:Beta endorphin 3D stick.pngBy Mplanine – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Link

Interestingly, humans and mice share very similar neural and opiate pathways in this area and context. The researchers observed brain scans of volunteers who consumed sugary solutions and found that the same region of the brain reacted to the sugar in the same way as seen in the mice. This is due to the fact that in this region of the brain, there are various opiate receptors close to the neurons that signal for fullness; the presence of the ß-endorphin stimulates both the receptors that signal reward in association to sugar intake as well as the neurons that tell us that we are full. These findings make evolutionary sense, as sugar is not frequently present in nature but functions as a very quick and rich energy source, meaning that the brain is wired to consume sugar as much as possible when we have access to it so that it can function as efficiently as possible.

Due to these closely related neural pathways, we continuously experience dessert stomach – the desire and ability to consume sugary treats even after feeling completely full from a meal. The dessert stomach phenomenon relates to what we learned about cell signaling and communication in AP Bio. The feeling of fullness comes from the activation of the POMC neurons and the resulting signals sent to the brain to indicate that the body is satiated. Furthermore, the ß-endorphin (released by the activated POMC neurons and signals after sugar is consumed on a full stomach) binds to nearby opiate receptors, signaling the neural pathways that create the feeling of reward, serving as an example of paracrine signaling. The rewarding feeling that we experience after consuming desserts following a filling meal comes from neurons sending signals to different receptors in close proximity to each other, proving that the confusing feeling of wanting a treat despite feeling stuffed comes more from a dessert-oriented brain than a dessert stomach.

The Unexpected Side effect of CAR-T Therapy

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On March 7, 2025

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There are many well-known side effects to cancer treatments, such as hair loss, nausea, pain, or fatigue. In rare cases, however, patients can experience a new side effect: a different cancer. The article “Rare side effects of cancer immunotherapy” by Anne Grimm of the Universität Leipzig discusses how new research shows that immunotherapy cancer treatments can trigger lymphoma to develop from modified T cells.

 As we learned in AP Bio and by the Cleveland Clinic, immunotherapy is a cancer treatment that utilizes your body’s immune system to detect and eliminate cancer cells. Your immune system recognizes and eliminates invaders, including malignant, cancerous cells. Similar to what we learned in class, the cells injected into the cancer patient undergo mitosis to rapidly divide for the patient to have as many cancer-killing cells in their body. Unlike these healthy cells, cancer cells are caused by uncontrolled mitosis, where cells divide uncontrollably due to mutations. While healthy cells go through checkpoints to ensure proper division, cancer cells bypass the checkpoints, allowing mutated cells to continue to divide.

The article describes a specific case where the genetically altered T cells in a 63-year-old patient developed T cell lymphoma following CAR-T treatment. According to the NIH (National Cancer Institute) CAR-T treatment is “A type of treatment in which a patient’s T cells (a type of immune system cell) are changed in the laboratory so they will attack cancer cells.” Researchers discovered that the tumor was caused by the CAR-T cell alteration and underlying alterations in the patient’s hematopoietic stem cells. They examined signaling networks and genomic alterations using next-generation sequencing. 

Mitosis cycle

While these side effects only occur in around 1% of patients who undergo CAR-T treatment, researchers are studying similar cases to examine the risks of immunotherapy. The article ends by describing new studies being conducted by research to ensure the well-being of the patient’s health after receiving immunotherapy, as it is becoming a more common treatment for cancer. To stress the urgency of the research, the author describes how, to begin a study, researchers must typically wait several weeks or months for approval and publication. Consequently, this study was accepted after no longer than a day due to its importance.

When first learning about immunotherapy in AP Bio, I thought it sounded almost to good to be true. However, after reading this article, I discovered that in some rare cases, immunotherapy can do more harm than good. This leaves me with some questions: Do you think researchers should spend time and money studying something so rare? Could early screening methods help predict and prevent these rare complications before treatment begins?

 

The Power of Exercise: How Aerobic Activity Can Protect Against Alzheimer’s

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On March 7, 2025

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Recent research led by scientists at the University of Bristol (UK) and the Federal University of São Paulo (Brazil) has revealed that regular aerobic exercise could significantly reduce disease markers associated with Alzheimer’s. Published in the journal Brain Research, the study provides new hope in the fight against this devastating neurodegenerative disorder. The findings highlight how physical activity not only protects healthy brain cells but also restores balance in the aging brain, showing the importance of exercise in maintaining cognitive health.

The research specifically examined the hippocampus, the brain region responsible for memory and learning, and analyzed the effects of aerobic exercise on key Alzheimer’s markers, including amyloid plaques, tau tangles, and iron accumulation in oligodendrocytes. These markers are important to the progression of Alzheimer’s disease, a brain disorder that slowly destroys thinking skills and eventually, the ability to carry out the simplest tasks.

Rodents that completed a aerobic exercise program showed significant improvements in brain health. The study found a significant reduction in Alzheimer’s markers, with tau tangles decreasing by approximately 63%, amyloid plaques dropping by about 76%, and iron accumulation in the brains of exercising rodents declining by nearly 58%. Additionally, aerobic exercise was linked to enhanced brain cell health, as researchers observed an increase in protective oligodendrocytes, reduced inflammation (between 55% and 68% depending on the biomarker), and decreased cell death. These results suggest that regular physical activity could slow or even preventing Alzheimer’s progression.

Beyond reducing disease markers, exercise also improved communication between brain cells, helping to restore the brain’s critical balance as it ages. Dr. Augusto Coppi, Senior Lecturer in Veterinary Anatomy at the University of Bristol, emphasized the significance of these findings. He explained that while physical exercise has been associated with cognitive decline and the cellular mechanisms responsible for these neuroprotective effects were not well understood until now. This research underscores the potential of aerobic exercise as a start to preventive strategies for Alzheimer’s.

The study’s findings align with key principles we have studied in AP Biology. One important connection is how aerobic exercise enhances cellular respiration. During physical activity, increased oxygen availability promotes efficient ATP production in neurons, supporting their function and longevity. This increased energy supply may help neurons combat the stress associated with Alzheimer’s pathology.

Another AP Biology concept relevant to this study is the role of oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Alzheimer’s is marked by an accumulation of oxygen species, which damage cells and contribute to inflammation and cell death. Exercise has been shown to up regulate antioxidant enzyme activity, reducing oxidative damage and promoting overall brain health. This aligns with our understanding of how cells regulate damage through enzymatic pathways such as catalase.

These findings have significant public health implications. Integrating regular aerobic exercise into daily life could play a crucial role in reducing Alzheimer’s risk, especially in aging populations. The study’s authors advocate for exercise programs tailored to older adults as part of broader public health initiatives. Given the promising results in rodent models, researchers are now planning human clinical trials to confirm these protective effects and explore additional interventions. They will also investigate potential drug treatments targeting iron metabolism and cell death, offering new ways for Alzheimer’s therapy.

I find this research particularly compelling because it presents a proactive way to reduce Alzheimer’s risk. While there is currently no cure for this disease, the study suggests that something as simple as aerobic exercise could have a large impact on brain health. It makes me wonder how can we better incorporate exercise into our daily routines to protect cognitive function as we age? Have you ever noticed improvements in memory, focus, or mental clarity after engaging in physical activity?

Drawing comparing how a brain of an Alzheimer disease patient is affected to a normal brain exercise

The Giant Y Chromosome: How White Campion Defies Genetic Expectations

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On March 7, 2025

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Researchers at the University of Buffalo in New York were baffled upon discovering that the Y chromosome of the plant species Silene latifolia, commonly known as white campion, had grown to an enormous size. Typically, in most organisms, the Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome due to genetic degradation over time. However, this particular plant species defied expectations, exhibiting a Y chromosome five times larger than its X chromosome.

Silene latifolia, a species of flowering plant in the carnation family, is known for its distinct sexual dimorphism. Unlike humans, who possess relatively small Y chromosomes, this plant’s Y chromosome has accumulated an astonishing number of genes and repetitive sequences over evolutionary time. Researchers had initially hypothesized that this accumulation was due to an inefficient method of removing non-essential DNA, leading to the bloated genetic material. However, upon further examination, they discovered that the Y chromosome had actively been acquiring genes, making it a key player in the plant’s development and function rather than a withering relic of evolution.

(MHNT) Silene latifolia - flower

Curious to understand this genetic anomaly, the researchers at the University of Buffalo used advanced sequencing technology to map out the entire Y chromosome of Silene latifolia. What they found was remarkable—rather than shedding genetic information like most Y chromosomes, this one was thriving with active, functional genes. Some of these genes were directly related to traits that differentiate male and female plants, including genes regulating flower development and reproductive structures. In essence, this Y chromosome was not a shrinking vestige but a powerhouse of genetic activity.

Such an unusual discovery prompted scientists to investigate whether this phenomenon extended beyond white campion. By comparing its genetic structure to closely related species, they found that some of its relatives also exhibited expanded Y chromosomes, though none to the same extreme. This suggested that the genetic inflation of the Y chromosome was a unique evolutionary path taken by Silene latifolia, possibly influenced by environmental pressures or the plant’s reproductive strategy.

While the discovery of a massive Y chromosome might seem like a niche topic, its implications stretch far beyond botany. Scientists are particularly interested in how this research could inform our understanding of sex chromosome evolution across species, including in humans. The study challenges the traditional view that Y chromosomes inevitably degrade over time and raises the possibility that, under certain conditions, they can expand and acquire new functions.

Furthermore, the research team speculates that the inflation of the Y chromosome may be linked to the plant’s ability to adapt and survive in different environments. By accumulating useful genes, the Y chromosome might be playing a significant role in the plant’s evolutionary fitness. This newfound understanding could lead to broader discussions about the role of sex chromosomes in adaptation and survival, not just in plants but across the biological spectrum.

This topic relates to AP Biology because it connects to the concept of sex-linked traits and chromosomal evolution. In Unit 5, Genetics, we learn about how sex chromosomes determine biological sex and how genes on these chromosomes influence inheritance patterns. The discovery of the expanded Y chromosome in Silene latifolia provides a real-world example of how sex chromosomes can evolve differently in various species. While in humans, the Y chromosome is known for its limited genetic material and degradation over time, in this plant, the Y chromosome has taken a drastically different evolutionary route. Understanding these mechanisms helps reinforce key concepts about gene linkage, chromosomal mutations, and natural selection in genetics.

I came across this fascinating discovery about Silene latifolia and its massive Y chromosome, and it completely challenges what I thought I knew about sex chromosome evolution! Instead of losing genes, it has actively gained them, influencing traits like flower development and reproduction. I love learning about weird exceptions like this because they challenge the “rules” of biology.

This makes me wonder: could similar expansions happen in other species, even outside of plants? And what does this mean for our understanding of sex chromosome evolution in general? Why might this plant have taken such a unique evolutionary path? Do you think environmental factors could play a role?

New AI Predicts Protein Fragments: What the Future could Hold

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On March 7, 2025

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File:PDB 1gme EBI.jpg

Protein fragments are an important place of biological research. Protein fragments, while small, can have major functional effects on a protein. For example, protein fragments can interact with proteins and bring allosteric regulation like how ATP interacts with Phosphofructokinase or inhibit interactions with a lipopolysaccharide transport protein. 

Because of the importance of protein fragments, researchers at MIT focused on finding a way to predict the interactions of protein fragments. 

By modifying a powerful preexisting AI called AlphaFold, which “is able to computationally predict protein structures with unprecedented accuracy and speed,” researchers created an AI they call FragFold. FragFold was able to predict the binding or inhibition of different protein fragments accurately more than half of the time, even when the structure of the protein was unknown.

One example of this happening is with FtsZ, a protein needed for cell division. While well-studied, a part of FtsZ is disordered, meaning the protein lacks a fixed three-dimensional structure in that area. This makes it very difficult to study that area, as even the interactions that take place in that area change rapidly. However, by using FragFold, researchers were able to identify several new interactions with various proteins in the disordered area, pushing research on FtsZ’s disordered area. This event exhibits the major potential that FragFold holds. 

Not only being useful for research, Gene-Wei Li, associate professor of Biology, is excited about the practical uses of FragFold, saying that “FragFold opens a wide range of possibilities to manipulate protein function,” even suggesting that FragFold can help us modify proteins to treat diseases. 

What do you think would be the most interesting application of this novel protein research?

Can Fish Make Human Friends?

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On March 7, 2025

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A study from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior (MPI-AB) in Germany found that wild fish in the Mediterranean Sea are able to identify specific human divers. This discovery resulted from an issue that scientific divers encountered: local fish would follow them on research dives, focusing primarily on the diver that had previously supplied food. Therefore, researchers ran trials to find out if the fish could actually distinguish different divers. Do you think that the fish will be able to distinguish between the divers?

At a research site where wild fish were already accustomed to the presence of divers, researchers carried out the study eight meters below the surface of the water.  As “participants” in the study, the fish were allowed to decide whether or not to participate in the research. Diver Katinka Soller attracted fish by wearing a bright red vest and feeding them while swimming 50 meters, as part of the experiment’s initial phase, the training phase. She gradually eliminated these visual indications, eventually wearing plain dive gear and concealing the food so that only fish that followed her all the way were rewarded. Out of the different species “participating,” two seabream were especially interested in the experiment. Seabream are a particularly interesting type of fish. Specifically, seabream tend to inhabit tropical and temperate coastal waters. They are a demersal fish species, meaning they live near the bottom of seas and oceans. Also, seabream are mostly marine fishes. However, some members of the species will enter freshwater environments. In addition to constantly following Soller, these fish also had distinguishable individual characteristics. After 12 days of training, about 20 fish were consistently following Soller, and she was able to identify multiple fish by their appearances.

File:Georgia Aquarium - Giant Grouper.jpg

In the “two-diver test,” the second part of the experiment, Soller dove with Maëlan Tomasek, a doctorate student who was wearing slightly different dive gear than her. The fish followed both divers equally, displaying perplexity. The fish soon discovered that Soller was preferred, though, because Tomasek never fed them.  This change of behavior suggests that the fish were actively learning and differentiating between the divers rather than merely following out of routine. I never thought that fish would be intelligent enough to do this! In order to clarify whether the fish recognized the divers or just their gear, the experiment was repeated with both divers wearing identical gear. The fact that the fish could no longer distinguish between the divers indicates that they connected each diver to the colors of their equipment. Given that fish have color vision, the researchers hypothesized that the fish recognized these visual cues. However, the researchers also suggested that with more time, the fish and potential other animals could learn to discriminate between finer human characteristics such as hands or hair. How interesting! According to Soller, the fish seemed to examine the divers closely, as though they were researching the people.

This study raises the possibility of unique interspecies connections and implies that fish are capable of developing unique relationships with humans. Although it may seem surprising, senior author Alex Jordan said that these fish already navigate intricate habitats with a wide variety of species, so it should not be completely shocking that they can interact with humans complexly. Did you ever think that fish were capable of forming bonds with humans?

I found this article particularly interesting because I have been a certified scuba diver for over seven years, and it is always so interesting to see how marine life interacts with the divers!

This article connects to the photosynthesis unit of AP Biology because without photosynthesis, marine plants, the foundation of the marine food web, would not be able to survive and the fish population would therefore die out. Overall, photosynthesis allows for marine plants such as kelp and phytoplankton to use light energy to form chemical energy, which is stored in the form of glucose. During the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, pigments such as chlorophyll absorb light energy and split water molecules, releasing oxygen (in the case of this article, releasing oxygen into the seawater). This oxygen is essential for aerobic organisms, such as the fish in the study, as it is critical for cellular respiration (the process in which glucose is broken down into ATP). The light-dependent reactions also create ATP and NADPH which are needed for the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle, which occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast, uses the ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide into G3P (a building block of glucose). Glucose is not only used as a source of energy (once broken down into ATP through cellular respiration) but as a building block for complex plant structures such as cellulose and starch. Specifically, glucose is essential for marine plants in terms of energy because through cellular respiration, glucose is broken down into ATP. This ATP can then be used for important cellular activities such as reproduction and growth. The survival of these photosynthetic organisms is critical because they are the foundation of the food web as primary producers. Primary consumers such as small crustaceans feed directly on the primary producers, consuming their energy. These primary consumers are then preyed upon by secondary consumers such as the seabream fish species observed in the study. Without the photosynthetic organisms, the primary consumers would die out and therefore the secondary consumers would also die out. As consumers, the fish species must intake nutrients from other organisms in order to survive because they cannot produce their own food like autotrophs. In addition, photosynthesis is key to the oxygenation of marine environments. The oxygen produced from the splitting of water in photosynthesis helps balance oxygen levels in the seawater, preventing hypoxic conditions which can be detrimental to marine ecosystems. Overall, the study emphasizes the importance of photosynthesis as the foundation of essentially all ecosystems worldwide.

 

 

 

Critter Chatter: Unraveling the Gene Behind Talking Animals

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On March 7, 2025

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Consider a world in which humans could communicate with all animals and animals conversed with one another in the same way that we do. A universe in which mice have their own “language” secrets. Recent research into the NOVA1 gene reveals that such a world might not be as far-fetched as it sounds. Scientists discovered that a subtle change in NOVA1, occurring between 250,000 and 500,000 years ago, may have pushed our ancestors toward developing complex language. 

Mouse

In this study, researchers swapped the standard mouse version of NOVA1 with its human counterpart and found that the mice began producing more intricate and varied vocalizations. While the change wasn’t dramatic enough to give mice full linguistic abilities, it did alter their courtship “songs,” suggesting that even small genetic tweaks can influence vocal behavior. However, NOVA1 is far from the sole architect of human speech. Instead, it seems to be a single component among hundreds of genetic modifications that collectively laid the foundation for the evolution of language.

Alongside NOVA1, scientists have also examined FOXP2, another gene linked to speech and language development. FOXP2 has long been considered essential in speech because mutations in this gene can cause severe speech disorders in humans. When FOXP2 was introduced into mice in previous studies, researchers found that the animals also produced altered vocalizations, similar to the effects of NOVA1. Interestingly, while Neanderthals possessed the same FOXP2 variant as modern humans, they lacked the human-specific NOVA1 variant. This distinction suggests that the combination of different genes worked together over time to fine-tune vocal communication in Homo sapiens.

From an AP Biology perspective, this study clearly shows natural selection at work. Natural selection is when organisms with traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more likely to pass those traits on to future generations. The role of natural selection in genetic evolution highlights how small genetic changes, when beneficial, can become widespread and ultimately define the species. In the case of NOVA1, the human version of the gene provided a distinct advantage that was so significant that it quickly replaced its ancestral variant across nearly the entire human population. Out of over 650,000 individuals studied, only a handful still carry the original variant.

This research excites me because it poses great questions about how many “language genes” might have played a role and whether future studies might uncover even more about the complex interplay of genetic factors behind communication. It also makes me wonder if one day we could talk to animals.

What are your thoughts? Do you believe that such genetic tweaks could eventually lead to revolutionary changes in how we communicate? Let me know in the comments below!

 

Want to never get sick again? Well, here’s how.

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On March 7, 2025

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Unfortunately, it’s not a tik tok hack that makes you immune to all diseases immediately, but it sure will make a significant difference in how often you get sick. What I am talking about isn’t something you can eat or drink, but it’s something you do.

 

Of course, it’s essential to understand our immune system and how it fights the sicknesses we get in order to comprehend how this activity helps us stay healthy. Let’s recap what we learned in AP Bio class that’s related to this phenomenon. Before we feel the full effects of a sickness, the pathogen triggers the innate immune response. This primarily leads to the inflammatory response, which includes mast cells releasing histamine and macrophages releasing cytokines. The histamines dilate blood vessels, which causes the area to swell with fluid. Meanwhile, the cytokines attract phagocytes that digest pathogens, aka the sickness. Natural killer cells also kill infected cells. Proteins called interferons “interfere” with any viruses and cause more histamine to be released. All of this makes it easy to say that when the innate immune response is triggered, it’s no good for any unwelcome pathogens in our body.

 

Inevitably, this immune response is always present, but even when low levels of the pathogen exist, it may not be triggered. Some pathogens replicate so fast the immune response cant get rid of them fast enough, and our adaptive immune system kicks in, or maybe they go unnoticed until there are enough for us to feel sick. But that doesn’t have to happen, and you don’t have to get sick in the first place.

 

I’d like to introduce you to… the cold. Not just any cold, but cold water immersion. This is when you purposefully go into cold water in a controlled environment. It could be in a cold shower, cold bath, or in a freezing lake. These are all considered cold immersion. A new meta-analysis and systematic review analyzed the best and most recent 11 studies with over 3000 total participants to determine cold waters effects on the human body. The most relevant part of their analysis is in just one study they looked at. It claimed a 29% sickness reduction while participants took cold showers. 29% may not seem like a lot, but I think it is quite significant. My personal experience with cold showers agrees with the trend of this data. I didn’t get sick a single time while I was taking them. But how does getting in cold water relate to sickness and the innate immune response?

When you step in a cold shower, or ice bath, or however you expose yourself to cold water, your body instantly causes inflammation as an innate response to the cold stressor. Your immune response, as explained above, goes through numerous measures to fight any pathogens that may be in your body. In reality, it’s over reacting. You don’t need your immune response, but your body thinks it does. So across your entire body histamines and cytokines are released that help fight any pathogens that may exist, however little of them there are. This ensures that none of them are able to replicate to a point of sickness, because they can’t hide from your innate response or get through such a defense as this one.

 

This isn’t the only reason it lowers your rate of getting sick. Deliberate cold exposure also causes “better sleep” in males and could “reduce stress levels” according to the systemic review. These both would help your body be in better shape to fight off any infections.

 

Cold showers other benefits include decreased recovery time, better mood, as well as increased focus, energy, resilience, and grit.

 

Cold showers are great for you. But they suck to do. No one likes stepping into a freezing cold shower first thing in the morning. Do you think they’re worth it?

Gray Hair: Can it be Reversed?

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On March 7, 2025

In Student Post

Gray hair is commonly seen as a sign of old age and while some people accept this change in hair color, others are more reluctant to embrace it. So, what causes graying hair and is it possible to reverse the process once it has started?

A small study from 2021 found that the reversal of graying hair could occur, but only in specific, short term scenarios. This study explored how stress related to the change in hair color and found that stress reduction led to temporary reversal of the graying process. 

Despite this finding, environmental factors are considered more impactful than an individual’s stress. Oxidative stress is an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in your body which can be caused by smoking, UV radiation, and pollution. Free radicals are oxygen molecules that easily react with other molecules. This can be beneficial but also very harmful. Antioxidants are molecules capable of donating an electron to a free radical without becoming unstable themselves. This process helps stabilize the free radicals, reducing their reactivity. Oxidative stress is connected to graying hair so avoiding harmful environmental factors or adding antioxidants into your diet could reduce your risk.

meiosis

Stages of Meiosis

Unfortunately, even removing all personal and environmental stressors still does not guarantee anything. Genetics is what plays the most important role in the graying process. As for the future of research on this topic, melanocytes have some potential. Melanocytes are cells that produce melanin, which is a pigment in skin, hair, and irises. Previously, scientists believed that melanocytes reduced in number as a person ages; however, in recent studies, it was found that the melanocytes actually accumulate at the root of the hair follicle, no longer moving up the strand to supply pigment. Because the cells do not die, it is possible that future research will find a way to reactivate them; however currently, there is no way to do so. I think that it is interesting that genetics determine so many things about you and your life. This is why I believe research in genetics is so important. What do you think? Please share your thoughts in the comments!

This article relates to the AP biology topic of genetics. The primary cause of graying hair is your DNA. During meiosis, DNA from both parents mix in order to form unique chromosomes. These chromosomes end up as the genetic material of the offspring. So, if either parent had a gene that caused the graying process to begin earlier than average, their child is more likely to begin graying earlier. Conversely, if either parent had a gene that delayed the graying process, their child would likely not have gray hair until later in life. 

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