BioQuakes

AP Biology class blog for discussing current research in Biology

Tag: ImmuneSystem

Self Vaccinating Bacteria?

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On April 7, 2025

In Student Post

In an interesting article written by John Hopkins Medicine on March 21, 2025, it becomes apparent to John Hopkins Medicine scientists that bacteria protect themselves from certain phage invaders (viral invaders that replicate themselves within bacteria) by seizing the genetic material from the weakened phages, using it to vaccinate themselves, allowing them to protect themselves from the more intense invaders. In the scientists experiments, they note that the bacteria take advantage of weaker phages known as temperate phages, by stealing genetic material from these phages when they are dormant and form a “memory” of the invader and their offspring as the phage multiplies. Then, the bacteria is able to recognize the invaders and fight them off.

After recognizing the unique response, John’s Hopkins investigators concluded that bacteria used CRISPR-Cas systems to break down phage DNA. These CRISPR systems can only break down DNA that matches a memory, captured from a previous invader. The scientists stated that the CRISPR systems acts as a “recording device” that documents all past invaders the bacteria encounters, and when one returns, the bacteria is ample and able to swiftly rid of it.

To try and understand more about this complex process, the scientists performed an experiment and concluded that the bacteria’s CRISPR system works best against naturally dormant phages as it was during the dormant phase where the bacteria created the memories of the phages.

This study from John Hopkins relates the the immune system unit we learned in AP Bio. The Bacteria’s process of making a homemade “vaccine” is naturally very similar to vaccines humans get like Flu shots. When we get a vaccine the weakened antigen enters the system and the cell-mediated and humoral responses kill the antigen, B memory and T memory cells are created, ensuring that if the same, or a similar antigen enters the body, it is swiftly dealt with. In the instance of the bacteria, the dormant phage is the weakened antigen, which allows the bacteria to create a memory of the phage and therefore be ready to eliminate it next time it enters the bacteria.

There are many implications to this study, one being an advancing in phage therapy an alternative process tp antibiotics that uses phages to target bacterial infections. If scientists make phages that bypass the CRISPR defense, phage therapy will be a lot more effective. As someone who hates to get sick, advancements in treatments to stop bacteria and disease in general always interests me. What do you think the future implications of this study will be?T4 Bacteriophage

(picture of phage)

Want to never get sick again? Well, here’s how.

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On March 7, 2025

In Student Post

Unfortunately, it’s not a tik tok hack that makes you immune to all diseases immediately, but it sure will make a significant difference in how often you get sick. What I am talking about isn’t something you can eat or drink, but it’s something you do.

 

Of course, it’s essential to understand our immune system and how it fights the sicknesses we get in order to comprehend how this activity helps us stay healthy. Let’s recap what we learned in AP Bio class that’s related to this phenomenon. Before we feel the full effects of a sickness, the pathogen triggers the innate immune response. This primarily leads to the inflammatory response, which includes mast cells releasing histamine and macrophages releasing cytokines. The histamines dilate blood vessels, which causes the area to swell with fluid. Meanwhile, the cytokines attract phagocytes that digest pathogens, aka the sickness. Natural killer cells also kill infected cells. Proteins called interferons “interfere” with any viruses and cause more histamine to be released. All of this makes it easy to say that when the innate immune response is triggered, it’s no good for any unwelcome pathogens in our body.

 

Inevitably, this immune response is always present, but even when low levels of the pathogen exist, it may not be triggered. Some pathogens replicate so fast the immune response cant get rid of them fast enough, and our adaptive immune system kicks in, or maybe they go unnoticed until there are enough for us to feel sick. But that doesn’t have to happen, and you don’t have to get sick in the first place.

 

I’d like to introduce you to… the cold. Not just any cold, but cold water immersion. This is when you purposefully go into cold water in a controlled environment. It could be in a cold shower, cold bath, or in a freezing lake. These are all considered cold immersion. A new meta-analysis and systematic review analyzed the best and most recent 11 studies with over 3000 total participants to determine cold waters effects on the human body. The most relevant part of their analysis is in just one study they looked at. It claimed a 29% sickness reduction while participants took cold showers. 29% may not seem like a lot, but I think it is quite significant. My personal experience with cold showers agrees with the trend of this data. I didn’t get sick a single time while I was taking them. But how does getting in cold water relate to sickness and the innate immune response?

When you step in a cold shower, or ice bath, or however you expose yourself to cold water, your body instantly causes inflammation as an innate response to the cold stressor. Your immune response, as explained above, goes through numerous measures to fight any pathogens that may be in your body. In reality, it’s over reacting. You don’t need your immune response, but your body thinks it does. So across your entire body histamines and cytokines are released that help fight any pathogens that may exist, however little of them there are. This ensures that none of them are able to replicate to a point of sickness, because they can’t hide from your innate response or get through such a defense as this one.

 

This isn’t the only reason it lowers your rate of getting sick. Deliberate cold exposure also causes “better sleep” in males and could “reduce stress levels” according to the systemic review. These both would help your body be in better shape to fight off any infections.

 

Cold showers other benefits include decreased recovery time, better mood, as well as increased focus, energy, resilience, and grit.

 

Cold showers are great for you. But they suck to do. No one likes stepping into a freezing cold shower first thing in the morning. Do you think they’re worth it?

The Hidden Benefits of Fever: Its More Than Just a Symptom

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On February 26, 2025

In Student Post

Although fever was originally thought to be a reaction to infection, recent studies indicate that it has also played a role in immune defense since the earliest vertebrates. Recent research on Nile tilapia  shows that fever-like behavior enhances adaptive immunity, challenging preconceived notions that this connection evolved later in warm-blooded animals. This finding deepens our understanding of immune system evolution and raises questions about how we deal with fevers today.

Thermometer High Temp

A study published in the Proceedings of the National Sciences examines how Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) use behavioral fever to fight off infections. In contrast to mammals, who generate fever internally, cold-blooded fish seek out warmer environments when sick. Scientists found that tilapia who were infected with Edwardsiella piscicda actively swam to water that was roughly 5°C warmer than normal. You may ask the outcome? Compared to fish kept at normal temperatures, these fish showed higher survival rates and had fewer bacteria in their livers.

An Oscar, (Astronotus ocellatus), a common aquarium fish originally from South America, seen from a three quarter view.

The survival and effectiveness of T cells, which are essential elements of adaptive immunity, were improved by fever. Unlike in mammals, fever in the fish did not trigger an explosion of T cells, but rather increased their resistance to programmed cell death (apoptosis). After eight days, this effect went away, indicating that the immune system is carefully balanced to avoid over activation. The research offers strong evidence that the connection between fever and adaptive immunity first appeared in ancient vertebrates, long before they transitioned from water to land.

T Lymphocyte (17382239521)

In AP Biology, innate and adaptive immunity are two primary parts of the immune system that we study. Fever plays a crucial role in both. The innate immune system reacts first with physical barriers and rapid inflammatory reactions, such as fever, which increases body temperature in order to make the body resistant to pathogens. In the adaptive immune system, T and B cells produce targeted reactions. Particularly, this study connects to our understanding if how fevers enhance T cell efficiency. According to this study, fever improves the survival and functionality of T cells, which require activation to effectively target and destroy pathogens. This also connects to what we have learned about cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help regulate fever and inflammation. Instead of only seeing fever as a symptom that should be repressed, understanding the physiological benefits of it can help us appreciate its role in immune regulation.

Human B Lymphocyte - NIAID

Many people instinctively take fever-reducing medications like Tylenol when they are sick, but this research suggests that fever plays an active protective role in helping overcome sickness. If fever helps T cells survive and fight infections more effectively, should we always try to suppress it and get rid of it? Share down below!

Long Covid: a Hazy Mind, and a Hazier Definition.

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On January 12, 2025

In Student Post

Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (49680675977)

The term “long COVID ” has been thrown around frequently without a clear definition. In fact, it has no straight definition and is just as foggy as its symptoms suggest. New research on long COVID has revealed just why this syndrome is so nebulous and how to effectively avoid it.

The definition of long Covid varies between different public health bodies. Still, overall, it shares the idea that it is a condition characterized by unexplainable symptoms well after an initial COVID-19 infection. Such symptoms can commonly include memory issues (“brain fog”), cough, headaches, problems with taste and/or smell, and chronic fatigue. While the pathological mechanisms for long COVID aren’t entirely understood, research has pointed to the virus’s ability to disregulate the immune response. A dysregulation in the immune response would allow the virus to remain inside the body’s tissues long after the initial infection and prevent it from being adequately dealt with.

In AP Biology, we learned about the exact biochemical and cellular pathways essential to the immune response. Helper-T cells carry the information of an infection into the lymph and signal B-cells and other T-cells to divide. Cytotoxic-T cells destroy infected cells, and cytokines are biochemical transmitters that allow cells to communicate with each other. Long COVID attacks these basic functions by exhausting the Helper-T cells and preventing them from effectively signaling other cells. The virus also elevates the number of cytokines and cytotoxic-T cells, overwhelming the immune system with unneeded information and expending more energy on unnecessary cytotoxic-T cells that may start attacking uninfected cells. These attacks therefore weaken the immune system and allow for the effects of long COVID.

Currently, there is no specific treatment for long Covid, but there is a way to prevent it altogether. Avoiding infection by COVID-19 means that the effects of long COVID can never set in, so the best way to prevent these terrible symptoms is to stay as vigilant as possible and keep ourselves healthy. Do you know anyone with long COVID? If so, what have they done to cope with their symptoms? Let me know!

There is a 7% Chance that You had COVID for a Long Time

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On December 16, 2024

In Student Post

Yes, you read the title right. About 7% of adults (above age of 12) have had long COVID. Many of us have heard about  this weird phenomenon of COVID’s symptoms persisting for a long period of time, sometimes months or even years. This is called long COVID. This sounds awful, and it is. Thankfully, Pam Belluck’s article from the New York Times goes more in depth on the new research regarding Long COVID. In this blog post, we will go through the new research regarding long COVID, including the diagnosis, symptoms, treatments, and science of it.

The research conducted actually stems from government intervention. The Social Security Administration, in 2022, requested a group of relevant and talented experts meet to research the implications and long-term health effects of long COVID. In 2024, the large team of experts published their findings in a fluent 264 page report.

Long COVID, according to the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, remains a prominent problem in our society, and continues to harm people’s lifestyles. So, how is it diagnosed?

Actually, that’s the first problem. Long COVID doesn’t show up on any COVID test, and there is no concrete way to diagnose someone with it. Every person that gets long COVID experiences it slightly differently than all the rest, making it a challenging diagnosis to make to a patient. This is especially concerning because people’s lives could be degraded every day by long COVID and not they nor their doctor know they even have it. Often, however, the diagnosis is made based on some common symptoms and personal history with COVID. 

Long term covid-19

Generally, a patient with long COVID has symptoms (more listed here) for more than three months after their initial COVID diagnosis, which include lack of energy, brain fog, inconsistent smell or taste, anxiety, and frequent headaches. There are a plethora of additional symptoms any one individual may experience as well. The problem again lies in the fact that everyone experiences long COVID differently. Differently well beyond that of how different people’s symptoms of normal COVID, the flu, or a common cold are. These symptoms last, as in the name “long” COVID, for a very long time, in some cases taking more than two full years for a full recovery, according to the researcher’s report. The report also commented that children can get long COVID too, but their symptoms are less severe and they recover faster.

Also investigated were the risk factors associated with acquiring long COVID. Most evidently, those who get a bad case of COVID initially are more likely to accumulate long COVID. If you were hospitalized for COVID, the report concluded, then you are up to three times more likely to get long COVID than one who had COVID but wasn’t hospitalized for it. However, due to the significantly larger number of mild COVID cases, most long COVID cases are from mild original cases, despite the lesser likelihood of one attaining long COVID after a mild initial response. For currently undetermined reasons, the report found that women were approximately twice as likely to develop long COVID than men. This could relate to possible hormone discrepancies, but there is no sufficient, unconflicted literature to completely validate this hypothesis. Unvaccinated people were also more likely to get long COVID. 

Recovery is slow, especially after the first year, the report said. Treatments depend on the person and their symptoms. There is no long COVID vaccine or cure, either.

Long COVID is a true phenomenon, but there are no such “impossibles” in science, there is always an explanation. Let’s take a closer look at each hypothesis of long COVIDS cause through an AP Biology lens.

One theory is that COVID causes chronic inflammation, which leads to the symptoms previously discussed. Chronic inflammation is caused by the body turning on its inflammatory response, and in this case never turning it completely off after COVID. We learned that the inflammatory response, most importantly, includes mast cells releasing histamine. Histamines “dilate local blood vessels” and “cause the area to swell with fluid,” which ultimately leads to what we see as inflammation. Other parts of the inflammatory response we learned about include macrophages release of cytokines, which attract neutrophils and dendritic cells, helping to consume dead cell debris. With all these processes occurring all the time with chronic inflammation, the body uses immense amounts of energy for no valid reason. This is why the most elicited symptom of long COVID is fatigue.

Another theory put forward by the report is that small fragments of COVID remain in an organ of the body. In AP Biology we learned the common process of B and T cell’s roles in fighting disease as a part of the adaptive response. Mainly because of B and T cell replication, just like chronic inflammation, this process takes large amounts of energy and resources to carry on continuously, even at a small scale.

Knowing all this, think back to the couple months after you had COVID last. Personally, my dad had long COVID and couldn’t taste or smell for months after he got over COVID initially. Did you have any symptoms persist? If so, share in the comments your experience with long COVID. I hope you better understand how it works and why you may have experienced it yourself, or why someone you know has.

Teaching Cancer to Fight Itself

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On February 27, 2024

In Student Post

Many of us know someone who has suffered from cancer and we have watched loved ones undergo the harsh treatments for it. With treatments such as chemotherapy, the side effects are hard to bear. So, what if your body could be taught to treat cancer on its own without having to experience the hair loss, fatigue, nausea, and anemia that external treatments can cause.

Cancer cells are very different from normal cells as they hide from the immune system which usually eliminates damaged or abnormal cells. Cancer cells also trick the immune system to help cancerous cells stay alive and grow. But, what if these cancer cells could be altered to teach the body’s immune system to fight the cancer that the cells come from?

7 Most Deadliest Cancers

In an experiment done by Stanford Medicine researchers used mouse leukemia cells to train T cells to recognize cancer in a way that could mimic the natural occurrence in the body, similar to vaccines. T cells recognize pathogens due to special antigen presenting cells (APCs) gathering pieces of the pathogen to show to the T cells what to attack. In cancer, the APCs would gather up the many antigens that characterize a cancer cell so T cells could be trained to recognize cancer antigens and wage a multi-pronged attack on the cancer.

Killer T cells surround a cancer cell

The researchers programmed mouse leukemia cells to be induced to transform themselves into APCs.  When they tested the cancer vaccine strategy on the mouse immune system, the mice were able to clear the cancer. The immune system was able to remember what the cells had taught them and when they reintroduced cancer to the mice 100 days they were able to have a strong immunological response to protect them. Additionally, they tried to see if the tactic used with leukemia would work with solid tumors so they used the same approach by using mice fibrosarcoma, breast cancer, and bone cancer. They found that the solid tumor transformation was not as efficient to that of leukemia, but it still had a positive result. With all three cancers, there was significantly improved survival rates.

They then went back to leukemia, but this time they studied acute leukemia in human cells. When the human leukemia cells APCs were exposed to human T cells from the same patient, they observed all of the signs that indicated the APCs were teaching the T cells how to attacked the leukemia.

This relates to what we have learned in AP Biology because we learned about cell division and how cancer differs from normal cell division. Cancer is a disease where some of the body’s cells divide and grow uncontrollably. This can start anywhere but also spread to other parts of the body very quickly. In its normal process, human cells grow and multiply through interphase and mitosis to form new cells as the body needs. Interphase is the phase in the cell cycle that prepares for cell division by growing cells and undergoing the process of DNA replication. The body has checkpoints that regulate the G1, S, and G2, phases of interphase. There are also checkpoints for mitosis, which is the division of cells that results in two daughter cells. When the cells become old or damaged, they die and new cells are regenerated. When this process breaks down and abnormal or damaged cells grow and multiply when they’re not supposed to, the body goes through a process called metastasis where cancerous tumors are formed. Cancer cells ignore the checkpoints and continue to divide and multiply.

This research has introduced a new way that could eventually treat cancer in a more harmless way while also ensuring that the body can fight off recurrence. So do you think that this will be the new treatment for cancer?

 

The ghost of COVID: COVID-19’s affect on people years after they contracted it

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On January 7, 2024

In Student Post

In early 2020, the entire world suddenly stopped due to COVID-19. Even as time passed and the deadly rampage of the disease slowly died down, its effects could still be felt. In 2021, Jayson Tatum, a star basketball player for the Boston Celtics, admitted that COVID caused him to use an inhaler before games so he could open up his lungs, even months after he actually had it. Being a big Jayson Tatum fan, I wondered what caused that, but there wasn’t much research on the long-term effects of COVID at the time. Now, a recent ScienceNews article shows that even 2-3 years later, COVID-19 can affect those who contracted it during the height of the pandemic. This phenomenon, called long COVID, could lead to fatigue, blood clots, and even heart disease.Jayson Tatum

The study shown in the article used the health records of 140,000 veterans who were infected with COVID-19 during the height of the pandemic and compared it to about 6 million people who were not reportedly affected by COVID-19. The researchers in the study found that people with past battles with COVID were more at risk of contracting other diseases or having health complications. Though research on why this happens isn’t conclusive yet, recent researchers have discovered that people who experience long COVID tend to have traces of the Sars-CoV-2 in their poop even months after having the virus, which suggests that some of the virus still remains in their guts. This triggers the immune system to act, specifically the innate cellular defenses, which (in this case) is unnecessarily activated due to the detection of the strains of COVID-19 in the gut. This may explain the symptoms felt due to long COVID because as the immune system works, histamine is released, which causes expansion of blood vessels and swelling of fluid/inflammation, explaining many of the symptoms of long COVID, such as trouble breathing, are related to inflammation in the body. On top of this, the strains of Sars-Cov-2 lead to long COVID because the interferons, which are another part of the innate cellular defense, reduce the absorption of an amino acid called tryptophan. Without tryptophan, the body can’t make neurotransmitters like serotonin; the lack of serotonin and other neurotransmitters is what scientists currently believe causes long COVID symptoms.

Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2

Long COVID is a severe problem that has affected billions worldwide. As of now, there is no way to cure it, so it’s essential to try your best to avoid getting COVID-19. People who have underlying health conditions, have been seriously harmed by COVID-19, or don’t have any vaccinations against COVID-19 are the most likely to contract long-term COVID. Another way to avoid long COVID is to stay up-to-date on COVID vaccinations. Many people don’t even know what long-term COVID is. Did you know about long COVID? If not, write about what you learned in the comments.

From Bacteria to Biotech: The Surprising Similarities in Immune Systems

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On April 30, 2023

In Student Post

Bacteria have always been considered harmful and something to be avoided, but according to a recent study by the University of Colorado Boulder, bacteria might just hold the key to unlocking novel approaches to treating various human diseases. The research reveals that bacteria and human cells possess the same core machinery required to switch immune pathways on and off, meaning that studying bacterial processes could provide valuable insights into the human body’s workings. Moreover, researchers found that bacteria use ubiquitin transferases – a cluster of enzymes – to help cGAS (cyclic GMP-AMP synthase) defend the cell from viral attack. Understanding and reprogramming this machine could pave the way for treating various human diseases such as Parkinson’s and autoimmune disorders.

CRISPR, a gene-editing tool, won the Nobel Prize in 2020 for repurposing an obscure system bacteria used to fight off their own viruses. This system’s buzz reignited scientific interest in the role proteins and enzymes play in anti-phage immune response. Aaron Whiteley, senior author and assistant professor in the Department of Biochemistry, said that the potential of this discovery is much bigger than CRISPR. The team discovered two key components, Cap2 and Cap3 (CD-NTase-associated protein 2 and 3), which serve as on and off switches for the cGAS response. Understanding how this machine works and identifying specific components could allow scientists to program the off switch to edit out problem proteins and treat diseases in humans.

CAS 4qyz

This discovery opens new avenues of research as bacteria are easier to genetically manipulate and study than human cells. Whiteley said that the more scientists understand about ubiquitin transferases and how they evolved, the better equipped the scientific community is to target these proteins therapeutically. The study provides clear evidence that the machines in the human body that are important for just maintaining the cell started out in bacteria, doing some really exciting things. The ubiquitin transferases in bacteria are a missing link in our understanding of the evolutionary history of these proteins. Thus, this research shows the importance of studying evolutionary biology, and how it can provide valuable insights into human health.

The study highlights the similarities between bacteria and human cells in terms of their immune response, specifically, describing how cGAS (cyclic GMP-AMP synthase), a protein critical for mounting a downstream defense when the cell senses a viral invader, is present in both bacteria and humans. This similarity suggests that portions of the human immune system may have originated in bacteria, a concept explored in the evolutionary biology unit. In this past unit, we discussed the origins of life, and how all life originated from a simple bacteria cell. This bacteria cell, though many many many repeated cycles of evolution and natural selection allowed for variation within its species and the formation of new species through the processes of speciation.

Vampires and COVID-19? They may have something in common; and spoiler, it has nothing to do with bats

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On January 17, 2022

In Student Post

Researchers from Trinity College Dublin and the University of Edinburgh think they may have found a new weakness of COVID-19; sunlight! More specifically,  ambient ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation which provides the body with vitamin D. The researchers knew of previous studies of the susceptibility of those with vitamin D deficiency to not only receiving the virus, but also experiencing the entirety of it’s wrath. However, in most cases measures weren’t taken to rule out the possibility of confounding factors (other conditions that can cause both vulnerability to COVID-19 and vitamin D deficiency). In order to jump this hurdle, the researchers used “genetically predicted” vitamin D levels.

Sunny day

With this averaged sample, the researchers used an analytical process called Mendelian Randomization . The process allowed them to test correlations between Vitamin D levels and COVID-19. This process had been attempted in past studies, and the researchers results did not contradict previous conclusions; a link between vitamin D levels and COVID-19 was not evident. However, the researchers of Trinity and Edinburgh wanted to test the effects of UVB radiation. UVB radiation from sunshine is the most important supplier of vitamin D for many, yet it was not included in previous studies.

 

Studying almost half a million people from the UK, the researchers compared the genetically predicted levels effect versus UVB predicted levels effect on COVID-19 infection. “researchers found that correlation with measured vitamin D concentration in the circulation was three-fold stronger for UVB-predicted vitamin D level, compared to genetically-predicted” (Trinity College Dublin). The researchers found a correlation of high strength in the negative between UVB radiation and hospitalization and death due to COVID-19 as well.

While the researchers admit that the sample size of the study is not quite large enough to be entirely conclusive, especially considering the surprising deviation from the results of the genetically predicted study, they are optimistic that with time their theory will prove significant. The odds are with them as vitamin D has been found to be a benefactor of the immune system in general. A fact demonstrated by the presence of vitamin D receptor on both B and T cells, and the trend of higher susceptibility to infection of those with lesser amounts of vitamin D.

 

COVID-19 May Induces Cell That Produce Antibodies for Life

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On December 20, 2021

In Student Post

Once in our body, SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, forces the body’s innate immune system to activate. However, the innate immune system response typically is deemed unsuccessful due to the complexities of the virus’s structural components, which then paves way for the body’s adaptive immune response to initiate. As we learned in Biology, adaptive immune response begins with a macrophage engulfing SARS-CoV-2 through phagocytosis. Then, the MHC proteins present on the macrophages, white blood cells that surround and kills microorganisms, remove dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells,” display the antigen on the surface, creating a ‘wanted’ poster for the immune system (Cancer.Gov). We also learned that eventually, a T-Helped cell comes along and binds to the displayed antigen, which activates the T-Helper cell which fosters the secretion of interleukin, a cytokine. Finally, both B and T cells are stimulated, which then begin the process of fighting off the virus, along with preventing reinfection. One of the cells that assists in the preventing reinfection are B-Plasma Cells, which are, “antibody-producing immune cells [that] rapidly multiply and circulate in the blood, driving antibody levels sky-high”(WashU School of Medicine).

Tingible body macrophageOne crucial step in determining a person’s ability to fight reinfection is testing to see if antibody secretion has either occurred or is currently occurring. While typical blood samples will suffice, “the key to figuring out whether COVID-19 leads to long-lasting antibody protection, Ellebedy [ PhD, and associate professor of pathology & immunology] realized, lies in the bone marrow”(WashU School of Medicine). The B Lymphocytes, which initiate a humoral response, mature in the bone marrow, and so, to determine the prevalence of antibody secreting cells, bone marrow samples must be received from past COVID-19 patients. To determine if antibody production increases after the body completes its fight against, Ellebedy collected blood samples and “As expected, antibody levels in the blood of the COVID-19 participants dropped quickly in the first few months after infection and then mostly leveled off, with some antibodies detectable even 11 months after infection” (WashU School of Medicine). However, people who exhibited mild cases of COVID-19, meaning that their body removed the virus after two to three weeks, antibodies continue to secrete antibodies, and will continue for an indefinite time period.

Covid-19 San Salvatore 09One problem introduced was rooted in the mainstream media, which spread a misinterpretation of data, being that “antibodies wane quickly after infection with the virus that causes COVID-19” (WashU School of Medicine). Ellebedy believes that this is a major misinterpretation of data, and actually means that antibody production is continuing inside of the bone marrow. Typically, antibody production plateaus after a certain period of time preceding infection, yet these numbers don’t go to zero.

Ellebedy concludes that this result is highly promising, especially for people who experienced a more severe infection from SARS-CoV-2, because an increased amount of circulating virus cells typically leads to a stronger immune response due to the body being required to secrete more antibody cells. Although she believes that more studies need to undergo in people who experienced moderate to severe infections, and show if they also have the same everlasting antibody production.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Can a Plant Based Diet Protect You from Covid?

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On December 17, 2021

In Student Post

The Covid-19 pandemic has affected and devastated millions of people all over the world over the past two years. Even after religiously wearing masks and more than half of the world’s population getting vaccinated, we still need to live in caution of getting infected with this virus every day. Although Covid-19 is known to be one of the most contagious viruses to exist, it has been discovered in a recent article that maintaining a healthier lifestyle and diet will decrease your chances of getting infected as well as minimize any symptoms if you do happen to get infected. We all know that overall if you are able to maintain healthy habits, your immune system will be stronger and therefore, able to fight off infection more effortlessly, but applying this same idea to Covid-19 may help us escape this pandemic sooner than expected. 

Since data on this theory was lacking, Dr. Jordi Merino and his colleagues conducted an experiment to gather more evidence. 592,571 participants were selected and began by completing a questionnaire assessing their dietary habits before the pandemic. Participants who had healthy eating habits had a 9% lower chance of contracting the virus and a 41% lower chance of developing severe Covid-19. Merino concluded that in addition to wearing masks and getting vaccinated, we should all try to maintain healthy, plant-based diets to fight against Covid.

Healthy non-sugar diet

In addition to the health benefits of having a plant-based diet, it improves your immune system because of the antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals found in plants. These components work to keep your cells healthy and working at their fullest potential to fight off infection. They resolve inflammation in the body by neutralizing toxins, processed foods, bacteria, and viruses. With all the benefits, why wouldn’t you go plant-based?

It may sound pretty simple: if I go plant-based and I won’t get sick, right? Not exactly. It is found that the risk of  Covid-19 is greater in areas of high socioeconomic deprivation. This is because the people who inhabit these areas are unable to maintain the same lifestyle as people who are more fortunate. Plant-based diets and healthier lifestyles are generally more costly, causing them to be less accessible to everyone. This is one of the main reasons that Covid is still a great risk to our society. For more information about a plant-based diet decreasing Covid risks, click here.

In AP Biology we learned how your immune system works to fight against any invading viruses in your body. When you are contracting a virus, the pathogen first needs to pass through your barrier defenses. These are the natural defenses with which you are born. For example, they include mucus, skin, stomach acidity, blood and lymph proteins, etc.. If you are an unhealthy person and these defenses aren’t working properly, you are much more susceptible to disease and then need to rely on your internal defenses.

Primary immune response 1

This diagram shows how the humoral and cell-mediated responses work in the body to fight off disease.  When a pathogen enters the body, your immune system will attack either the pathogen itself when loose in your bloodstream and bone marrow or attack and kill an entire infected cell. Keeping your immune system strong by eating right and frequent exercise will also ensure that these defenses will fight off disease quickly and form antibodies to prevent future reinfection. A healthy person is by no means immune to a virus, but they will experience fewer symptoms as well as recover faster because their immune system works faster. This means that fewer cells will become infected and the virus will have less time to replicate and multiply.

As someone who runs track and cross country, it is very important to me to keep my diet as healthy as possible. Though a plant-based diet doesn’t suit my lifestyle best, I do make healthy food choices as often as I can to properly fuel myself and to ensure I don’t get sick. This seems to be working well for me as I am still yet to get infected with Covid-19 or show any symptoms.

The Unknown Disinfecting Protein

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On November 2, 2021

In Student Post

When our body is invaded by a virus, it will send its army to fight it, this army is known as the Immune System. The Immune System uses white blood cells to do most of the pathogen killing work, sending white blood cells in waves. The Immune System records the pathogens signature features and creates antibodies to fight the particular invader. But in some cases, the Immune System’s antibodies “are less effective against pathogens that have already penetrated the interior of the cells.” When bacteria microbes get past the Immune System and get to the cytoplasm, the bacteria will replicate. This is where a protein comes and dissolves the bacteria in the cell.

A less known family of proteins called the Apolipoprotein can actually dissolve bacteria that is in the cytoplasm. Researchers at Howard Hughes Medical Institute at Yale discovered the APOL3 in particular had the ability of dissolving a bacteria. An experiment with un-immune cells, cells that are not protected by Immune System, and the bacteria, Salmonella. Salmonella has a double membrane, similar to mitochondria and chloroplasts, making it very hard for cells to kill it. The APOL3 protein, however, “binds to and destroys the inner membrane of virulent bacteria like salmonella and kills them.” APOL3 only removes the inner layer, with the help of an immune protein called GBP1, GBP1 can remove the outer layer and set up APOL3 for the final shot. The way APOL3 dissolves bacteria is by shooting or surrounding the bacteria with APOL3 molecules and it just goes away. This is probably why researchers called it the detergent. The way APOL3 does this scientifically is by possessing “parts attracted to water and parts drawn to fats.” Since membranes are mostly made of lipids, the bacteria is a sphere of lipids and inside are its organelles. The APOL3 binds to and destroys the lipid membrane, releasing all the cytoplasm organelles out and killing the bacteria. APOL3’s method of dissolving must dissolve some other parts of the cell right? Well, APOL3 actually has a selective target, targeting bacteria lipids and not attacking cholesterol.  As we learned in class, cholesterol is a lipid which is part of the plasma membrane as well as the building block of other steroids. Because APOL3 cannot target cholesterol, our human cells are safe.

Salmonella

“Salmonella” by National Institutes of Health (NIH) is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0

 APOL3 is a very diverse protein and allows it to be around the whole body. Humans have a very strong defense system, having the Immune System as well as detergent like proteins around the body, lipid based bacteria will have a hard time in our cells.

 

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